History

  • A Walk Through the Bergen Fortress

    History

    The Bergen fortress is located roughly between the cruise ship terminal and Bryggen, making it a very convenient place for visitors to explore. It is one of my favourite places to take to, simply because there’s so much history there. Everywhere you look, you hear about Kings, Armies, War and renovation. It’s incredible.

    If you’re in Bergen and want to walk somewhere that’s maybe a little quieter than the town centre, or you love history, the fortress is for you!

    On the 5th of May 2020, I went for a walk through the fortress and took some photos of all the buildings. I used the free museum guide that you can either pick up from Håkon’s Hall or the Rosenkrantz Tower, or you can download it online by clicking the link:

    https://www.forsvarsbygg.no/globalassets/festningene/bergenhus-festning/festningsloype_bergenhus-festning_engelsk.pdf

    For my walk below, I have added a little bit of information and changed the walking path slightly. I am interested in reading stories about places, not just simply what a place is. So I’ve added that to my walk.

    In this article...

    History of the Bergen Fortress

    The Royal Estate

    When Olav Kyrre officially founded Bergen in 1070, the Bergen Fortress was to be the site of the new royal estate. The royal estate (at Alrekstad) was too far away from the harbour, Vågen, so Olav Kyrre had it moved.

    Olav Kyrre had the Small Christ Church (Lille Kristkirken) built on the land, Holmen, and laid the foundations for the large Christ Church (Kristkirken), the towns medieval cathedral, in stone.

    The next King of Norway, King Øystein Magnusson, moved the royal estate from Alrekstad to Holmen in the 1100s. He began building residences for the royals there.

    Stability in the Kingdom

    After the various civil wars in Norway, King Håkon Håkonsson (King of Norway 1217-1263) took his seat as King of Norway. He made Holmen his residence. Norway became more permanently united under a single, national monarch. The royal residence had to become a more up-to-date fortified complex of stone buildings. Under Håkon Håkonsson, Bergen became the first true capital of Norway. The complex of new buildings at Holmen developed into the country’s political centre.

    During Håkon Håkonsson’s and King Magnus the Lawmender’s reign, Håkon’s Hall and the ‘Keep by the Sea’ (present-day Rosenkrantz Tower) were constructed. Additionally, several other royal buildings and a defensive wall finalised the fortress.

    A wall was also placed around the estate, and various other royal buildings were constructed.

    Danish Military Base

    At the beginning of the 16th century, Norway was becoming part of the Danish kingdom. As Holmen reflected Norway’s past and connection to independence, the Danish monarchy wanted it gone. The Danes levelled the Christ Church in 1530 for military reasons.

    The union with Denmark meant that Bergen ceased to need a permanent royal residence. However, the estate at Holmen remained a political-administrative centre. This is where the ‘captain of the royal palace’, or the governor, the King’s leading representative in Western Norway, had his headquarters.

    Renovations & Reformation

    King Christian II’s governor, Jørgen Hanssøn (1514-1523) put the royal palace in order again. He developed the estate into an administrative centre, with warehousing for the King’s income, and a military strongpoint. His comprehensive reconstruction gave the complex the name it has had ever since: Bergenhus. -hus at the time signified ‘fortified castle’. The castle received its Renaissance facade when governor Erik Rosenkrantz (1560-68) had the medieval ‘keep by the sea’ converted into a residential tower.

    The Dano-Norwegian absolute monarchy began in 1660. Bergenhus became a military base and any traces of the old royalty vanished. Hakon’s Hall was now a storage building, and its original function would not be remembered for 200 years. The topography of Holmen was altered, and the remains of the old medieval complex are visible only in the area around the old royal palace.

    Bergenhus & Sverresborg’s last major renovation took place when the Napoleonic War started in 1807. Denmark-Norway fought on the side of France.

    History of Bergen

    You can read my detailed historic overview of Bergen by clicking the link below. 

    World War II

    During the Second World War, the German navy used several of the buildings for their headquarters. The Rosenkrantz Tower had the Germans’ radio network.

    One of the country’s worst events during World War II took place at the foot of the Rosenkrantz Tower. On the morning of the 20th of April 1944, a ship loaded with 100 tons of explosive blew up due to a mishap during welding. Since there was no warning, there were heavy casualties on the shore of Vågen. Iron from the ship and stones torn from the pier blew all over the town.

    The blast wrecked Rosenkrantz Tower (though the stone walls remained). The interiors destroyed, including the recent renovation of Håkon’s Hall. The shock wave set fire to the other side of Vågen, destroying many wooden buildings. Previously, the area had been one of the best-preserved enclaves of 18th century buildings in town. The explosion made Bergen one of the most war damaged towns in Southern Norway.

    The Fortress Today

    Bergenhus is open to the general public, and it still has military and civilian functions. Large rock concerts and cultural events take place on the grounds. Bergenhus is under the command of the Royal Norwegian Navy, which has around 150 military personnel stationed there.

    It is possible to walk around the fortress; a trail will guide you. There are two museums on the fortress: the Rosenkrantz Tower and Håkon’s Hall.

    Bergen Fortress Walk

    The Main Gate

    The best place to start is by the main gate. If you are coming with a cruise ship, you will notice there is a gate on the other side of the fortress (no. 31). It’s just a couple minutes to cross through that gate to the main gate. It’s a much quicker walk than taking the main road.

    Parade Ground

    Originally, the third Apostle Church stood on this land. Today, the Parade Ground is an open courtyard. During the summer months, they sometimes have a stage set up for kids performances. If there is a festival, such as the Beer Festival, taking place here, they use the ground for the stalls. Today it’s the main passageway for the Bergen Fortress.

    Rosenkrantz Tower

    King Magnus the Lawmender was the one who built this tower around 1270. The Keep By the Sea had a royal apartment and chapel inside.

    After the capital moved to Oslo, the Keep By the Sea lost its importance. Around 1520, Jørgen Hanssøn renovated the building to a sound state, and today you can still see the Keep by the Sea as it’s the backbone of the modern Rosenkrantz Tower.

    The Present-Day Rosenkrantz Tower

    It was Erik Rosenkrantz who gave the Rosenkrantz Tower its current form. Erik Rosenkrantz was one of the wealthiest men in Denmark-Norway. Erik Rosenkrantz made many changes to Bergen’s structure. For example, he altered the Hanseatic League’s power situation. When he arrived in Bergen in 1559 as the freshly appointed governor, he had spent years warning the King of the Hanseatic’s reluctance against participating in the community. As King Frederik II’s governor, Rosenkrantz had the task of putting Bergenhus to good architectural and military order.

    Stonemasons from Scotland came to incorporate the old keep and Jørgen Hanssøn’s work into a larger residential tower. The new tower is influenced by contemporary Scottish tower architecture. Inside the tower, you can see all three phases of development. The tower looks right down at Bryggen, displaying Denmark-Norway’s old power, especially over the Hanseatic League.

    Construction of the Rosenkrantz Tower finished around 1533. When Scholeus released his print of Bergen in 1580, we see the Rosenkrantz Tower standing tall at Bergenhus. The appearance has been more or less retained throughout the years.

    Fortress Courtyard

    The courtyard has its design from the 18th century. Likely, in Håkon Håkonsson’s time, wooden buildings were standing here. Recent excavations have found traces of old wooden buildings. The previous Apostle Church’s likely stood here as royal chapels.

    Before the Second World War, a lovely garden with trees and flowers were planted in the courtyard. The explosion from World War II damaged the garden, and since then it has been a bare courtyard.

    Fortress Courtyard

    Residence of the Captain, Commander of the Watch

    This is the white building next to the barbican, or directly behind you if you are facing Håkon’s Hall. It was built in 1714 and later connected to Håkon Håkonsson’s barbican. The building sustained extensive damage in the 1944 explosion but has since been restored.

    The Commandant’s Residence

    The Commandant’s Residence is the white building directly opposite the museum entrance to Håkon’s Hall. Originally, King Eirik Magnusson’s ‘Ladies Hall’ from the 1290s stood here. It was probably where the ladies of the court had their place of residence. The Commandant’s Residence was built in 1725 and restored after the 1944 explosion. The appearance is very much the same as the 1725 building.

    All of the whitewashed buildings around the courtyard were built in the early 18th century. Under the white paint, they’d look exactly like Håkon’s Hall and the Rosenkrantz Tower: bare stone!

    Håkons Hall

    The First Håkon’s Hall

    Here’s the most famous and photogenic building at Bergen Fortress: Håkon’s Hall. This is also a museum and you can go inside, and I’ll cover the interior in a separate article. Honestly, the exterior is where it’s at.

    Built sometime between 1247 and 1261, Håkon’s Hall was the royal seat in the Middle Ages, with the King’s Great Hall on the upper floor. Important events such as coronations, royal weddings and important political meetings took place here.

    In the Late Middle Ages, when the capital had moved to Oslo, the original function of Håkon’s Hall lapsed. When the royals visited Bergen in 1450, 1453 and 1486, they likely used Håkon’s Hall for meetings and celebrations. The Hall became a storage room for royal income after Jørgen Hanssøn became governor.

    The Revival of Håkon’s Hall

    National Romanticism in the 19th century saw a renewed interest in the country’s history and old buildings. Håkon’s Hall’s original function was revived in 1840. For the next fifty years, the building saw an extensive restoration. Henrik Ibsen wrote a poem in the halls honour and Henrik Wergeland used the name Håkon’s Hall in one of his poems. Frescoes lined the wall of the interior depicting Håkon Håkonsson’s Saga, and stained glass windows replaced the old windows.

    The explosion in Bergen harbour in 1944 destroyed all the restoration work. Fortunately, the stone walls remained. The hall was restored a second time, though the new decorations are much less detailed and lavish. The hall opened to the public on 11 September 1961, the 700th anniversary of its first use.

    Today Håkon’s Hall is the largest building in the royal palace and the largest secular medieval building in Norway. It was likely the inspiration for Akershus Fortress in Oslo and the royal estate at Avaldsnes. Håkon’s Hall is in use for concerts (especially choir song and chamber music) and banquets (mostly official).

    Jørgen Hanssøn's Wall

    You’ll see the wall as soon as you go through the gate, and it’s well worth walking along it. Jørgen Hanssøn was the Danish lord who oversaw renovations of Bergenhus in the 1520s. He reduced the area of the castle and constructed this wall to outline the boundaries. The new wall replaced sections of the medieval fortifications.

    The Second Stone Walls

    Standing here, you get this incredible view to Håkon’s Hall, and it makes you wonder how everyone assumed this was just a storage building for hundreds of years. The ruins in front of Håkon’s Hall were originally additional stone halls, constructed around the same time. They served as defensive buildings to protect Håkon’s Hall from attacks from the sea but were also residential and functional buildings. The two buildings probably formed an inner courtyard that was the core of the defensive fortifications.

    The Artillery Building

    The artillery building has had many purposes since it was built in the 1750s. For some time, it has been a laboratory and a prison, though not at the same time! During the archaeological surveys of Bergenhus Castle, architect Gerhard Fischer used the building as a residence and office.

    The Old Christ Church Site

    If you walk through the narrow gap in the hedges, you will find yourself on the remains on the old Christ Church. In the Middle Ages, this was the main church in Bergen. Dating back to 1170, the church had the remains of St. Sunniva, the patron saint of Bergen. Two Queens and five Kings have been crowned here, and four kings were interred inside the church. When the site was being developed for military purposes in the early 16th century, the Christ Church was torn down. The work was done so well that archaeologists have been unable to cover but a few traces of it. At the site of the former choir, you can see a statue in memory of St. Sunniva as well as an inscription to commemorate the queens and kings who were crowned and laid to rest here.

    General Mansbach's Avenue

    This part of the park was planted by General Carl Mansbach in the 1830s. Only parts of the park remain. You may notice that the trees have had all their branches cut off; this is because they grow very quickly and there’s a risk of them falling off and hitting someone.

    The Bunker

    After the 1944 explosion, the German’s radio room was damaged. They had Soviet prisoners of war build this bunker in heavily reinforced concrete to withstand air attacks. After the war, the German government gave Bergen some money to destroy the bunker, but instead, they planted the vines on the building to keep it as part of our history.

    The Regimental Building

    Located just behind the bunker, the Regimental Building was completed in 1921 and served as living quarters for the two former regiments from Western Norway. The building was divided in the middle.

    The Main Guard

    Built in the 1700s, the Main Guard has the monogram of King Carl Johan of Sweden and Norway above the gateway. This is because it officially became the Main Guard in 1835 when Carl Johan was ruling. The Main Guard was badly damaged in 1944 but has since been restored.

    Bergen Fortress Museum

    The large white building is the Bergen Fortress Museum. It’s a free museum that has exhibitions on the history of the fortress, World War II, and current activities of the Norwegian Army. It’s a fascinating museum worthy of a visit, and I’ll cover it in a separate article.

    Sverresborg

    The First Sverresborg

    The last stop on this walk is Sverresborg Fortress, but keep in mind it’s an uphill walk and may not be suited for everybody. The history of Sverresborg goes back to the 1100s when the royal residence at Holmen was unfortified and vulnerable. During the civil war, King Sverre constructed two of the first stone forts in Norway: one in Trondheim and one in Bergen. Sverresborg took part in several battles during the civil war, and the site was reinforced by King Håkon Håkonsson around 1250. Sverresborg remained as a medieval fort until around the 1500s. It’s not mentioned much in history, probably because it was overshadowed by the more modern facilities at Holmen. In 1477, the locals complained that the Hanseatic merchants had torn down its walls.

    The Present Form of Sverresborg

    The fortress received its present form in the years 1807-1813 when Denmark and Norway were drawn into the Napoleonic Wars. From the 1830s onwards, a park is situated at Sverresborg. During World War II, the Germans established two anti-aircraft batteries in the fortress. After the war, Sverresborg was used as an execution site in connection with treason. Seven Germans and one Norwegian war criminal were executed at Sverresborg in 1946. The military still uses the site occasionally as a training ground, but the locals like to use it to sneakily watch the concerts at Koengen! Directly under Sverresborg is the residence of the ‘Master of Ramparts’, the oldest part going back to the 18th century. As the very cool name implies, the master of ramparts was in charge of the maintenance and upkeep of the buildings and fortifications. The yellow barracks were used as an academy for petty officers up until World War II, where it sustained heavy damage. Today the building houses the department of the Norwegian Armed Forces.

    I hope you enjoy the walk of Bergen Fortress!

  • The Churches of Bergen

    The Churches of Bergen

    Bergen is a city of churches; in fact, as early as the 13th century there were no less than 13 churches in the compact harbour area. Considering the city has had a large number of fires, churches have come and gone. Some have remained throughout history, though they have changed in appearance.

    I know, when you visit Europe there are constant churches tour guides try to take you to. Trust me, I’ve heard it first-hand! Still, there’s no avoiding that Bergen is a city of beautiful, historic churches with a lot of history. During the summer months, most are open to the public and throughout the year most have regular service. Throughout the year, the churches are also the host of various concerts and performances. Be sure to check the list of Bergen events for when you plan to visit.

    For this article, I thought I’d put together an overview of Bergen’s past and present, as well as some stories as to what happened within them. I’ve also tried to include visitors information & what takes place today inside each church.

    A common question I get is: “What religion is that church?” Here in Norway, almost every church is a Lutheran church as that is the country’s main religion. All churches are Lutheran unless otherwise stated.

    Enjoy!

    Table of Contents

    Churches of Bergen Map

    Churches No Longer Standing

    The Christ Church (Kristkirken)

    This one is probably the most gut-wrenching, especially when you consider how important it was historically. Olav Kyrre founded Bergen in 1070 and the town served as the capital in the 13th century. The royal palace was located where Bergen Fortress is today and this was arguably one of the most important sites in the country.

    Olav Kyrre was the one who commissioned the Christ Church; it was originally a small wooden church. The small wooden church didn’t last long; Christ Church was rebuilt in stone in the 12th century. The church functioned as the site for the crownings of Norway’s various kings. Christ Church is important historically as it is where the first King’s of Norway were crowned. King Magnus Erlingsson was crowned here in 1163. The following royals were then crowned here:

    • The rebel king, King Sverre Sigurdsson (1194)
    • Our peacetime King, King Håkon Håkonsson (1247)
    • His son, King Magnus Håkonsson (the Lawmender) (1261)
    • And then his son, King Eirik Magnusson (1280)

    The choir of the church held the graves of some of the last King’s of Norway’s oldest royal dynasty, which had started with King Harald Fairhair in the 10th century, as well as some of King Sverre’s dynasty. The church also held the remains of Saint Sunniva, the patron saint of Western Norway.

    Loss of the Church

    Shortly before the Reformation in 1537, the Christ Church was destroyed for military reasons. Norway had entered into a union with Denmark and the Danes wished to turn the old royal palace into a military fortress; similar to what it is today. The relics inside the church were taken away and melted down to be turned into coins, including Saint Sunniva’s casket.

    Today no trace of the church remains. You can see where the church stood thanks to a row of hedges that have been placed over the original foundations. There is a memorial statue at the site where the altar used to stand. It has a list of all the Kings and Queens who were buried here and an image of Saint Sunniva.

    The History of Bergen

    You can find my detailed history of Bergen by clicking the link below. 

    The Small Church Of Our Saviour (Lille Kristkirke)

    We don’t know that much about the Small Church of Our Saviour. The church was likely built of wood and therefore fits the ‘stave church’ style. It may have been used as a prototype for the small rural churches across the country, and the best examples are found at Urnes and Kaupanger today.

    St. Nicholas Church (Nikolaikirke)

    Nikolaikirken i Bergen – Wikipedia
    Nikolaikirken depicted in the drawing from 1580. You can see it’s in ruins. Source: https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaikirken_i_Bergen

    Poor, poor St. Nikolai’s Church. This church didn’t have much luck when it came to longevity. When the Hanseatic League moved in, they preferred St. Mary’s Church and turned it into their German Church. In the earliest picture we have of Bergen, from 1580, we can see that St. Nikolai’s is rotting in the background. This may be because of the Reformation when many of Bergen’s churches went out of business. However, the proximity to the Hanseatic League leads us to believe that the locals just didn’t want to use it. The first town hall (until 1558) and the town square (until 1470) were located next to the church. Both of these moved after fires, and it’s another reason why St. Nikolai’s lost its importance. If you want to see the town hall, it’s underneath the car park on Nikolaikirkeallmenningen!

    The Old Sagas mention the church; first in 1160 and again in 1198 when the church burnt down. After it was rebuilt, it became an important fire watch station. Absalon Pedersøn Beyer wrote of the church in 1567 when he said that the Norwegians who lived close to Bryggen had used the church. Once the Hanseatic’s began to dominate, locals stopped using the church.

    Nothing remains of the church today, just the street name ‘Nikolaikirkeallmenningen’; a classic example of crazy long Norwegian street names.

    St. Margareta Church (Margaretakirken)

    Another church we can’t quite place on the map, but it was likely close to the Aquarium at Nordnes. This church has a fascinating story with it; the story of Princess Margareta of Norway and Scotland:

    The Story of Princess Margareta

    Princess Margareta was the daughter of Eirik Magnusson and Queen Margareta Alexanderdatter, who was of Scottish origin. Eirik was the son of Norway’s King Magnus the Lawmender. Eirik was crowned as the King of Norway along with his wife, Margareta at the Christ Church in 1280. In 1283, Princess Magareta was born, but sadly the same year her mother died and was buried at the Christ Church in Bergen.

    Princess Margareta became recognised as the heir to the Scottish throne. At the age of six, Princess Margareta was sent to Scotland to marry Prince Edward (who later became King Edward II of England). However, Margareta never married. She fell ill and probably died at the Orkney Islands in 1290. Her body returned to Bergen and was buried alongside her mother.

    Ten years later, in 1300, a woman appeared in Bergen claiming to be Princess Margareta. By then, King Eirik had died and couldn’t confirm it was his daughter. This new Margareta had arrived by ship with her husband from Lubeck. She told the locals that she had travelled to Scotland but was sold by her foster mother, Ingeborg Erlingsdatter. She ended up in Germany where she got married. Now she was back and wanted to assert her rights as the royal daughter!

    The locals actually believed her, but the bishop and authorities didn’t. ‘Margareta’ and her husband were convicted as imposters. The man was beheaded and the fake Margareta was burned at the court in Nordnes in 1301.

    Despite this, the locals had great faith in the fake Margareta and began to pilgrimage to her court. Worship of her was banned in 1320, but people continued to praise her. The fake Margareta had been dead for sixty years when a church was built in her honour.

    Source: http://www.histos.no/bergen/Margaretakirken

    Was she real?

    Was Margareta real or not? Probably not. The fake Margareta had grey hair and claimed to be forty years old; the real Margareta would’ve been 17. Also, when Margareta’s coffin had returned to Bergen, King Eirik had opened the coffin and confirmed it was, in fact, his daughter.

    The Church of the Archangel Michael

    The Munkeliv Monastery stood tall at Nordnes; it was, after all, the largest and most wealthy monastery in Norway. Part of the monastery housed the Church of the Arch Angel Michael, built some time in the 12th century. During the Reformation, the commanding officer of Bergen set fire to the church. Archaeological excavations in the 19th century uncovered the site of the church, which today is at Klosteret 4-8. The site is at the top of the hill as St. Michael in Europe is typically worshipped on mountain tops or in natural caves.

    St. Hallvard's Church

    St. Hallvard’s Church was a tiny church located near Lille Øvregaten. Some of the church wall remains, located in between the apartment buildings at Halvardkirkeplassen.

    St. Lawrence's Chapel

    This small chapel existed between where the Bryggens Museum and St. Mary’s Church is today. You can still see the foundation walls, with the entrance carved out.

    In 2017, Bergen was Norway’s Reformation City. This video explains what exactly happened to the churches during the Reformation. They’ve also got a self-guided Reformation walking tour, which you can view here: 

    Current Churches

    St. Mary's Church (Mariakirken)

    St. Mary’s Church is the oldest and most authentic church in Bergen; built between 1130 and 1170. Since Christ Church was nearby, St. Mary’s wasn’t the main church in Bergen. When the Hanseatics came to Bergen, they were given St. Mary’s to use as their church. St. Mary’s Church became known as the ‘German Church’ until the early 20th century. Thanks to the Hanseatic merchants, however, the church has been kept in wonderful condition.

    Since St. Mary’s Church is one of the must-sees of Bergen, I’m going to explore it closely in a separate article.

    Church Service: Sunday 11am (English)
    Visiting: The church is open in the summer months as a museum

    The Cross Church (Korskirken)

    The Holy Cross Church was first built in 1181. However, this church has burnt down in almost every fire that Bergen has had, and gradually it has changed form. It has a variety of architectural styles; from the Renaissance portal to the Romanesque walls.

    Originally there was a large churchyard around the church, but over the years it has gradually been closed in. On the northern wall, you can see one of the remaining gravestones. It is for Alida Fisher, the daughter of one of Bergen’s most renowned bishops, Johan Nordahl Brun. Alida married schoolmaster Johan A. Fisher and became a mother to a boy before she died when she was 16 years old in 1801.

    On the south-east all is a monument commemorating the dead at the Battle of Alvøen, a navy battle between the Norwegian and English in 1808. This episode of the Napoleonic War greatly stimulated patriotism in Bergen, though fighting the English was tough for many due to the long trading history.

    Today the city missionary uses the church. Every Wednesday at 12pm is masse, and on other business days is a prayer at the same time. The church also host’s the annual Grieg Festival.

    See the program for the Grieg Festival here: https://www.grieginbergen.com/program.html

    Church Service: Mon-Tues, Thurs-Fri prayer at 12pm. Wed masse at 12pm
    Visitors Information: Not generally open to the public. Today the church services those suffering from addiction, so it’s not recommended to visit. 

    Bergen Cathedral (Domkirken)

    The Bergen Cathedral has existed for 900 years, though its appearance has changed over time. The church was originally called St. Olav’s Church and received its new name after the Reformation in 1537.

    The Franciscan Monastery took over the church in the early 13th century. Their church was plain, with only one nave and a few ornaments. The church burnt twice during the time they owned it, in 1248 and 1270. King Magnus the Lawmender had the church rebuilt. When King Magnus died, his remains were placed in the church. Well, according to legend anyway. No remains have ever been found in the church.

    St. Olav’s Church became the Bergen Cathedral after the Reformation. The Bishop had a residence built there, and a lavish garden planted. The garden had fish ponds, herbs, and wonderful trees. There were even fruit trees from abroad and they cultivated figs, vine, chestnut, coriander and laurel. Some trees even had apples. After the plague came to Bergen in the 17th century, the graveyard was continuously extended.

    Watchmen used the tower from 1624 until 1903. The lower part of the tower has a cannonball embedded in its wall after a battle between the English and Dutch in Bergen harbour in 1665. The tower was rebuilt with a baroque spire after the 1702 fire. A medieval wall on the south side of the tower was restored in 1880.

    The New Church (Nykirken)

    ‘The New Church’ dates back to 1621. The locals at Nordnes complained it took too long to walk to the Bergen Cathedral, so they wanted their own church.

    The Archbishops Residence

    The remains of the Archbishop’s Residence lie underneath the church. There were other churches on the peninsula already in the 13th century, and the Munkeliv Monastery was also active. The Archbishop has lived on Nordnes since the 13th century. The Archbishop’s residence doubled as a merchant house, as the Church had large estates in Northern Norway and a sound financial connection to the fisheries. The Archbishop relied on the Hanseatic League at Bryggen to export the episcopate’s fish and at the same time import the goods needed by the Archbishop.

    It is still possible to see the ruins of the Archbishop’s Palace under Nykirken. The remains indicate that the palace had an area of 500m2. The estate must’ve looked like a fortress, with thick walls around it.

    The exterior of Nykirken resembles its 17th and 18th century originals. The baroque portal from 1670 has the monogram of King Christian V on it. After every fire, there was a great effort into keeping the original style of the church. However, due to economic reasons, the church existed without a steeple for many years. The original steeple was added after the church was rebuilt in 1956.

    Nykirken is now the ‘children’s church’. If you visit the church, you’ll see that it has been extensively decorated in children’s art.

    Visitors Information: The church opens to the public during the summer months. Between June and August, it is open Monday-Friday 10am-2pm.
    Church Service: Sunday 11am (in Norwegian)

    St. John's Church (Johanneskirken)

    St. John’s Church is one of the newer churches in Bergen; built between 1891 and 1894. The church is built in a Neo-Gothic style with Dutch red brick and a copper roof, which has turned green over the years. It is the main church for the Lutheran religion in Bergen. It is also the tallest building in the city; the tower is 61m high. The church seats 1,250 people.

    Visitors Information: The church has a regular program, but generally it is open Thursdays 2pm-4pm; Fridays, and Sundays. Sometimes there is an organ concert on Thursdays in the evening. Find more info at the website (in Norwegian) here: https://kirken.no/nb-NO/fellesrad/Bergen/menigheter/bergen-domkirke-menighet/om-oss/kirkene-vare/domkirken4/
    Church Service: Sunday 11am (in Norwegian)

    St. George's Church (St. Jørgens Kirke)

    St. George’s Church was built as the hospital chapel in Bergen since the main medical institutions were all close by. It is also located next to the leprosy hospital, which was first mentioned in history in 1411 and at the time was run by the Nonneseter Abbey. The church was originally just for the leprosy patients, but eventually, it became its own parish serving the surrounding area. The parish was also a base for chaplains at the nearby city prison, poor house, and home for the widows.

    The church burned down in 1640 along with the leprosy hospital and wasn’t rebuilt until after the fire of 1702. The present appearance is the result of a major construction in 1789-1790.

    Visitors Information: You can enter the church as part of a visit to the Leprosy Museum.

    Fantoft Stave Church

    Fantoft Stave Church isn’t technically an active church; rather, it is an attraction that is open during the summer months. Still, I had to include it!

    Built in the 12th century, Fantoft Stave Church was originally located at Fortun on the Sognefjord. In the 19th century, the village wanted to get rid of it and build a new church. The Bergen merchant F. Gade heard of this and bought the church. In 1883 he re-erected it here on his farm at Fantoft and decorated it to look like a real church, including putting a fake grave in front of it.

    In 1995, the church was the victim of arson and burned down. Meticulously rebuilt, today has more of a ‘typical stave church’ appearance.

    I will do a separate article on Fantoft soon!

    Visitors Information: mid-May to mid-September 10:30am – 6pm
    Church Service: No church service.

    Sandviken Church

    Sandvik Church was built in 1881. The design for the church was a competition, and the winning architect was Ernst Norgrenn. Ernst Norgrenn passed away before his plans were realised. Renowned architect Schak Bull (who designed Troldhaugen) took over and completed the church.

    The church seats 500 people.

    Landås Church

    Landås church dates back to 1966. The style is very post-war, built in concrete. It has offices, parish halls and seats about 600 people.

    Slettebakken Church

    Søk - Bjørgvin bispedøme
    Slettebakken Church. Source: https://kirken.no/nn-NO/bispedommer/bjorgvin-bispedome/sok?buildingid=120103001

    This is perhaps one of the most unique churches in Bergen. Slettebakken Church was built in 1970. Tore Sveram was the architect. He has designed many modern churches influenced by contemporary architecture. The municipality was wary of his vision, but the parish was very excited. It certainly stands out today!

    Laksevåg Church

    Laksevåg Church - Wikidata
    Laksevåg Church.
    Source: https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11982996

    Laksevåg Church

    Laksevåg Church is one of my favourite churches, though it may be because I pass it every day on my daily walk. Constance Janson, the widow at Damsgård Manor, gave the plot of land and funded the construction of the church. Laksevåg Church was completed in 1874. The church has beautiful decorations both inside and out, such as the sculpture above the church door. Woodcarver Odd Ystanes made it; he’s the one who taught the famous woodcarver Lars Kinsarvik.

    St. James Church

    St. James Church was built in 1921. The youth community group has used the church since 2003. The church consists of a sound studio, computer room, church room, a living room, and a kitchen.

    St. Pauls Church

    St. Paul’s Church is the only Catholic church in Bergen. Father Christopher Holfeld-Houen founded the congregation in 1857. It was granted church status in 1870. At first, there were only between 20 and 30 members. As of 2012, there were just under 12,000 members.

    Fana Church

    Fana Church | Mapio.net
    Fana Church.
    Source: https://mapio.net/wiki/Q1770324-en/

    Historically, Fana Church is one of the most important churches in Bergen. It was first mentioned in documents in 1228, when Pope Gregory IX wrote about it in a letter. In medieval times, it was an important pilgrimage site because of a miracle silver cross. According to legend, two brothers (one of them blind) must have fished a silver cross outside Korsneset in the Korsfjord in Fana. After touching the cross, the blind brother could see again. They brought it to Fana. The sick came to touch the cross, and magically were healed as well! The ill supposedly threw away their crutches after touching the cross. In 1546, the priest Peder Simenssen burned six horse carts full of crutches.

    The Lord of Bergenhus, Tord Roed, took the silver cross during the Reformation. As he was sailing away, his boat sank. The cross was lost forever.

    A private owner bought Fana Church in 1723. This was fairly common at the time; The Danish-Norwegian monarchy desperately needed money, and Norway had a lot of old churches. It remained privately owned for 150 years. Two villagers were able to buy the church, and by that time it was in serious disrepair. Most of the furniture was gone; auctioned off and lost. The church was heavily restored.

     

    Sources

    Nordhagen. Per Jonas. Bergen Guide & Handbook. Bergensiana-Forlaget. 1992.

    Pedersen, Annette-Friis. Bergen: Streets Broad & Narrow. Histos Forlag. 2005.

    Histos Website: http://www.histos.no/

    Various Norwegian Wikipedia Articles

  • The History of Bergen

    The History of Bergen

    One of the things I love most about Bergen is its history. I was never really a history buff until I moved here; once I started reading, I couldn’t stop! Bergen is full of history and historic buildings, and everywhere you walk you can find a historical story. It’s incredible. Before you visit Bergen, it’s worth having a quick read about its history. It will make your visit even more special.

    Join my Bergen walking tour!

    I offer walking tours of the Hanseatic area of Bergen with my company I Love Bergen. 

    In this article...

    The Royal Estate

    It’s believed there has been a settlement in Bergen since the last Ice Age, but it wasn’t a known place until the royal estate Alrekstad was built at the foot of mount Ulriken and on the Store Lungegårdsvann (Lungegård Lake). The estate has roots dating back to the 400s, as evident in the burial mounds on the site, but it wasn’t until King Harald Fairhair unified Norway as one country that the estate began to grow. King Harald Fairhair built up Alrekstad as one of his various royal estates across the country. He took up residence in the 9th century, and from this, the city began to grow. The street Årstadgeilen, which runs from the student house Alrek down to Store Lungegårdsvann (which was called Alrekstadvågen), is Bergen’s oldest street.

    Moving Bergen to the Bay

    King Harald Fairhair’s successors, Håkon the Good and Olav Kyrre, ruled the country from the estate. Olav Kyrre ruled the country for 26 years from Alrekstad and the estate had a very strategic position; surrounded either by water or mountains, with the Puddefjord as the only entrance to the estate. Olav Kyrre who looked out to Vågen (The bay, where Bergen city is today) and decided that he should move the estate there. Archaeological finds indicate that there was an urban settlement trading there in the 1020s, but Olav Kyrre is known as officially founding Bergen in 1070. He decided to move the royal estate to Holmen (today the Bergenhus Fortress) to better defend his new city. At Holmen, he planned the construction of the great Christ Church, the cathedral for the whole of Western Norway.

    Bergen is Established

    Olav Kyrre founded Bergen in 1070, making it one of Norway’s oldest cities. The original name of Bergen was Bjørgvin; the first element “bjørg” (today’s berg) means ‘mountains’, while vin means ‘new settlement where there used to be a pasture or meadow’. In short, Bjørgvin means “the green meadow among the mountains”. In the 14th century, the name was written was “Bervin”, “Bergin” and “Berven”, and by the end of the Middle Ages it was simplified to “Bergen”. The name “Bergen” likely came from the English and Germans misunderstanding the pronunciation since ‘berg’ is a German word for mountains. The Hanseatics used the word “Bergen” from the early 1300s. But we are getting a little ahead of ourselves, let’s head back to Olav Kyrre.

    The City of Churches

    King Harald Fairhair’s successors, Håkon the Good and Olav Kyrre, ruled the country from the estate. Olav Kyrre ruled the country for 26 years from Alrekstad and the estate had a very strategic position; surrounded either by water or mountains, with the Puddefjord as the only entrance to the estate. Olav Kyrre who looked out to Vågen (The bay, where Bergen city is today) and decided that he should move the estate there. Archaeological finds indicate that there was an urban settlement trading there in the 1020s, but Olav Kyrre is known as officially founding Bergen in 1070. He decided to move the royal estate to Holmen (today the Bergenhus Fortress) to better defend his new city. At Holmen, he planned the construction of the great Christ Church, the cathedral for the whole of Western Norway.

    The Christ Church was built as a wooden church at Holmen (remember, today it’s the Bergenhus Fortress) and it became the main cathedral for Western Norway. The remains of St. Sunniva, the patron saint of Western Norway, was moved to the Christ Church and placed at the high altar in 1170. The church was the place where Norway’s kings were crowned, dedicated and buried. The first royal coronation in the Nordic countries was Magnus Erlingsson’s (King of Norway from 1161-84) coronation. This was the most important church then. Sadly, it was levelled by the Danes in 1531 who were converting Holmen into a military fort. The gold, altar and caskets (including that of St. Sunniva) were taken to Copenhagen and melted down into coins. Nothing remains from the Christ Church today, but you can stand on the site and see a pillar commemorating the history of the church.

    A church was also built at Alrekstad, the “Church of the Holy Cross”. The church was first mentioned in 1395 but was probably built in the 1600s. This church was demolished in the 1600s but you can still see the stones from the church, as they were used to build the walls along Årstadgeilen. Alrekstad itself ceased to be a royal estate when King Magnus the Lawmender in 1277 bequeathed the property to the Nonneseter Monastery.

    The property was maintained until the Reformation in the 1530s (and the beginning of the Danish Union). Vinens Lunge, a Danish governor who was instrumental in forcing Norway into the Danish union in the 1530s, forced the royal estate and monastery to go abandoned. He renamed Alrekstadvågen to Lungegardsvann, after himself. By the 1900s, the royal estate and monastery were no more. I’ll explain why the Danes did this to most of Bergen’s buildings below.

    Growth as Norway's Most Important City

    Many important buildings were built up in the 12th and 13th centuries. King Øystein Magnusson (King of Norway from 1103-23) built the ‘Apostle Church’ at Holmen (no longer in existence) and founded the Munkeliv Monastery at Nordnes in 1110, which was one of the largest monasteries in Scandinavia and Norway’s wealthiest during the Middle Ages.

    Around 1140, the Nonnester Monastery was established at Marken (where the train station is today). More churches were built; St. Mary’s Church, Korskirken, and the Olav Church (now the Bergen Cathedral) were first built during the 12th century. The Bergen Cathedral School was established during the same period. In 1184, King Sverre Sigurdsson (King of Norway from 1177-1202) built Sverresborg (Sverre’s Fortress) over Holmen. In the first half of the 13th century, an additional three monasteries were built around the city. At its peak, there were over 12 churches in the inner city.

    Holmen became Norway’s power centre. Before and during the civil wars of the 12th and early 13th centuries, it was one of the most powerful royal residences in the country. It fortified the city’s position as the Hereditary Kingdom of Norway’s main city, a position the city had until 1314 when Oslo took over as the capital. During this period, Norway was a large and powerful empire. This was also when Bergen became Northern Europe’s most important trading city.

    The Trading Capital of Northern Europe

    Olav Kyrre was the one who granted rights to Bergen as a market town in 1070, but during King Øystein Magnusson’s Bergen expanded rapidly. Trade to foreign countries was of the most importance, and there was a growing interest from Europe in the goods from Northern Norway, primarily the stockfish (dried cod). This gave Bergen a very special position.

    When Håkon Håkonsson became the King of Norway, he made Bergen the capital and focused very much on west-oriented politics, increasing trade especially with England. He also built up Holmen as a better fortress to defend the harbour and all the trading activity by building a wall around the fortress and also built Håkonshallen around 1261 as the royal residence. His son, King Magnus the Lawmender (King of Norway from 1263-1280) built a castle close by, which in the 16th century was converted to the Rosenkrantz Tower. He also built a third Apostle Church in Holmen, following the pattern of the Sainte-Chappelle in Paris, and inside placed a precious relic, a piece of Jesus’ crown of thorns encased in crystal. It was a gift from King Philipp III of France.

    Håkon Håkonsson was the one who believed Bergen should be the centre of trade. The royal power decided that all imports and exports of goods abroad should take place in Bergen, so they could keep control of customs duties and taxes. Bergen’s role in foreign trade was further formalised when in 1294 the German merchants were banned from sailing north of Bergen, and in 1310 the ban was extended to all foreigners. Bergen was the stop for all foreigners wanting to trade, especially for goods from Northern Norway.

    King Magnus the Lawmender’s son, Eirik II Magnusson (King of Norway 1280-1299) took over, and after his death, his brother, Håkon V Magnusson, Duke of Oslo, took over. As he had his residence in Oslo, the functions of the capital were moved to Oslo.

    The Hanseatic League Come to Bergen

    Trade of stockfish didn’t begin in the 13th century: it’s believed that stockfish had been traded from Norway since the 1100s. But stockfish was the main reason the city became one of Northern Europe’s centres for trade. The Hanseatic League became interested in trading in Bergen. The Hanseatic League began in the 13th century when the northern German cities (Lubeck, Bremen, Hamburg) merged into a joint trading enterprise with their jurisdiction that shared profits and losses. This was the Hanseatic League. They established an extensive trade network with over 300 locations across the Baltic and North Seas, as well as four head offices with a permanent Hanseatic settlement. These were Bergen, Bruges, London and Novgorod.

    The Hanseatic League

    You can read my detailed guide for the Hanseatic League by clicking the button below. 

    The Black Death

    Their position was further enforced after the Black Death in 1349 killed at least half of Bergen’s population. The King of Norway desperately needed income in the country, as well as food and other goods from Europe, and decided that the Hanseatic League should have exclusivity to the trade of stockfish.

    Each year the North Norwegian fishermen sailed to Bergen and traded their stockfish for various goods from Europe. Most products exported were stockfish, clipfish (salted dried cod, from the 17th century), herring, other types of fish, fur products, timber, hides, skins, butter and tallow. In return, the Germans imported flour, grain, malt, salt, beer, hemp, laundry, hardware, glass, honey, wine, and other luxury goods. Both Norwegian and foreign ships dominated Bergen’s harbour. The foreigners were mostly German, Englishmen, Scots and Dutchmen, and some of them eventually settled in Bergen permanently.

    By the end of the 14th century, Bergen had established itself as the centre for trade in Norway.

    Tensions with the Hanseatic League

    Thing’s weren’t always peachy with the Hanseatic League, though. The Germans typically avoided paying taxes and subject themselves to their laws on many occasions. Tensions reached its peak in 1455 when the Hanseatic merchants stormed and destroyed the Munkeliv Monastery, killing both the chief and bishop of Bergen. Still, though, you can’t forget the importance of the Hanseatic League. After the Black Death, Bergen (and Norway) was incredibly poor and in desperate need of food and goods. Without this Hanseatic connection, people in Bergen, and more importantly Northern Norway, wouldn’t have been able to survive in such remote parts of the world. So, while the Hanseatic League may not have been popular in Bergen, they were loved by those in Northern Norway.

    Danish Union

    After a national meeting in Copenhagen in 1536 by King Christian III, Norway became a country under Denmark. This was a political ploy by the King to increase his power while the idea of a monopoly was strong. Around the same time, the Reformation occurred. The Reformation forced Norway to adopt the Lutheran Protestant religion, and this crippled the old wealth of the Catholic religion. The Reformation opened up access to church property, and the Danes took most of the gold and items from the Norwegian churches, including Saint Sunniva’s casket from the Christ Church in Bergen and Saint Olav’s casket from Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. Norway couldn’t stop the Reformation or the union; Norway was without leadership, seriously poor, and already dependent on the Danish royal house.

    After the Danish union, Danish lords began to come to the area to establish law and order, as well as diversify trade. Around this time, the Hanseatic League was lessening in importance in Europe, and many of the trading offices had closed down. The North Norwegian fishermen were still dependent on the Hanseatic League, and they continued to operate out of Bryggen for 150 years after the Hanseatic League had ended, but the Danes allowed for other countries to establish their trading warehouses. Scottish, Dutch and non-Hanseatic Germans settled in the city on the side of the harbour opposite Bryggen, and Norwegians even had their own warehouses.

    Conflicts, Battles & Witches

    The Hanseatic League didn’t react well to these changes, and there were often conflicts between the Danish-Norwegian authorities and the Hansa federation. The Hanseatic merchants would evacuate the city, introduce trade blockades, loot buildings, and take part in violent riots. Eventually they settled down, and many took Norwegian citizenship.

    Bergen wasn’t the safest city in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 1560s alone, there were five murders a year; this means 1 murder per 1,200 residents. That is higher than the rates today in New York. The town had an executioner in the court of Nordnes, and it was here that Anne Pedersdatter, one of 350 ‘witches’, were burned at the stake during this time.

    The Battle of Vågen

    In 1655, the city’s harbour was the site of the Battle of Vågen, when an English naval flotilla attacked a Dutch merchant and treasure fleet supported by the city’s garrison. A Dutch merchant navy, chased by English warships, sought refuge in Bergen’s natural harbour. The garrison at Bergenhus chased the English away after a bloody sea battle.

    It’s worth noting that during this time Bergen was one of the largest cities in Scandinavia. In 1300, approximately 7,000 people lived in Bergen, compared to 3,000 in Nidaros (Trondheim) and 2,000 in Oslo. At the time, medium-sized cities in Europe had a population between 5,000-10,000, and Bergen was the only Norwegian city of this magnitude. In the 1600s, Bergen was the largest city in the Nordics with 15,000 inhabitants; Copenhagen had about 13,000 and Trondheim, Norway’s second-largest city, had about 5,000 inhabitants. Bergen remained the largest city in Norway until the 1830s when it was overtaken by the capital Christiania (Oslo).

    Trade Dominance Ends

    Until the 17th century, Bergen had enjoyed exclusive rights to mediate trade between Northern Norway and abroad. However, the Hanseatic dominance of the city’s trade gradually declined in favour of Norwegian merchants (often of Hanseatic ancestry) and in 1753 the Hanseatic Kontor finally closed. Bergen maintained its monopoly of trade in Northern Norway until 1789 when Vardø and Hammerfest were granted town status and market rights.

    20th Century Growth

    In 1901, women were granted municipal voting rights in Norway, and in Bergen, a handful of female municipal representatives were elected that year.

    By the early 20th century, the export goods were mainly fish products as well as timber. Additionally, steamship companies and industry were growing along the Bergen harbour, and Bergen became the starting port for Hurtigruten. New economic life was also growing in the city, including banks and insurance companies. Urban expansion had been huge during 1877 and 1914, and Bergen’s rural district was incorporated into the city.

    After World War I, Bergen was hit by economic crises with closed industrial plants, ships in storage, and so on. A lot of the merchant fleet had been damaged during the war, despite the fact Norway was neutral.

    World War II

    Bergen was occupied on the first day of the German invasion on 9 April 1940, after a brief fight between German ships and Norwegian coastal artillery. The Bergen section of the operation was fronted by the German cruisers Konigsberg and Cologne, with 1900 soldiers on board. The fort at Bergen was staffed with 33 officers and 279 corporals and privates. The fort shot at the ships as they sailed towards Bergen at 3:58am, and it immediately became obvious how outdated the fortress was; one of the few grenades that hit the ships did not go off. The ships did not fire back, but sent the message “stop shooting!”. By the time the locals woke up on 9 April, Nazi flags were flying on Bergen’s buildings.

    Resistance groups were operating out of Bergen, including Saborg, Milorg, the Theta Group, Sivorg, the Stein-organisasjonen, and the Communist Party. Additionally, the Shetland Group also operated near Bergen.

    losed industrial plants, ships in storage, and so on. A lot of the merchant fleet had been damaged during the war, despite the fact Norway was neutral.

    Bombing Raids

    The city was subject to some Allied bombing raids, aimed at German naval installations in the harbour, and some of these caused Norwegian civilian causalities numbering about 100. Nordnes was also damaged by Allied bombing raids, and the old theatre was destroyed. One of the most known events took place in 1944, when the city was hit by the bombing of Laksevåg, a suburb in Bergen. The British were targeting the German U-boat pen Bruno, located at the end of the harbour. 152 aircraft took part in the raid, which dropped 1,432 bombs over the area, most of which hit civilian targets. 191 civilians were killed, including 61 kids at the Holen School, which was accidentally bombed.

    Bergen after the explosion

    In 1944, the Dutch ship Voorbode exploded by the fortress quay with 120 tons of ammunition on board. The explosion was so powerful that 131 houses disappeared, 117 houses were condemned, 45 houses were severely damaged, and 3,500 buildings were damaged. 98 people were killed and 4,800 were injured. Important historical buildings such as Nykirken, Tollboden, the Rosenkrantz Tower and Håkonshallen were severely damaged by later restored.

    World War II Sites

    You can find an overview of World War II sites in Bergen by clicking the link below. 

    Post-war Developments

    In 1955, the last devastating fire took place, when 1/3 of Bryggen burnt down. The area was investigated by archaeologists, and they discovered the first settlement of Bergen. The Bryggen Museum stands there today.

  • The History of Kirkenes

    The History of Kirkenes

    I love Kirkenes. Honestly, it’s one of those places I didn’t think much of until I got there. What makes it so special is the blend of so many cultures, religions and customs that come together to make one special town. Walking through the town, you’ll hear Norwegian, Finnish, Russian and Sami. This didn’t happen overnight; Kirkenes’ multiculturalism is from hundreds of years of history. I’ve put together my overview of the history of Kirkenes, focusing on the important events that made the town what it is today.

    The History of Kirkenes

    The E6 Highway

    Kirkenes is located on the E6, Norway’s main highway. You can find my guide to the E6 by clicking the link below. 

    Norway's Coastal Ferry

    Kirkenes is a port of call of Norway’s coastal ferry. Find my guide for the coastal ferry by clicking the link below. 

    The Sami Settlement Between Two Countries

    The history of Kirkenes begins with its Sami settlement. The Skolt Sami, or Eastern Sami, have been using the land around Kirkenes for hundreds of years. They would come here with their reindeer flocks to graze along the Varangerfjord. In the winter, they would go to Northern Finland.

    Kirkenes and surroundings was a shared Norwegian-Russian district with no strict borders. The present-day border is from 1826, and it took only a few years before the first settlers came to the area. 

    Border Establishment

    When the borders came into place, the region was heavily affected. For example, Neiden, 45km west of Kirkenes, was cut in half. The area is the centre of the Skolt Sami culture in Norway, which is the eastern Orthodox Sami. Many of the residents lived part of the year in Russia, and the borders led them to settle on the Kola Peninsula in present-day Russia.

    In Neiden you can still find St. George’s Chapel, a Russian Orthodox chapel built in 1565. In 1902, the Norwegian government funded the Neiden Chapel. The church resembles a stave church to assert the state’s sovereignty in Eastern Finnmark. If you are driving towards Inari in Lapland from Kirkenes, you will pass the church. Today there is a Skolt Sami Museum in Neiden, close to St. George’s Chapel.

    The First Church

    In the mid-19th century, the settlement around Kirkenes decided to build a church near the fjord. Originally, the settlement had the strange name ‘Piselvnes’ (Pis River Headland). With the church, the settlement became Kirkenes (Church Headland).

    Kirkenes 1898 Wessel, Ellisif Rannveig

    Discovery of Iron Ore

    Kirkenes grew thanks to the discovery of iron ore 10km south of the settlement. Around that time, very few people lived in Kirkenes. The mining company SydVaranger A/S was founded and the town grew rapidly. In the early 20th century, the population grew to 8,000. Most people came from far away. Besides Norwegian and Sami languages, Russian, Swedish, English and German were common. During World War I, iron ore from Kirkenes was in high demand. At most, 1,500 people worked in the mines. In 1908, the Hurtigruten made Kirkenes its turning point.

    World War II

    With its proximity to the Soviet Union, Kirkenes was valuable throughout World War II. When the Winter War broke out in Finland, Kirkenes was a safe haven. More than 1,300 refugees from Finland and the Soviet Union crossed.

    Less than a year later, in July 140, German forces invaded Kirkenes. Kirkenes became one of the most important bases in Norway for the Germans.

    The Murmansk Front

    Up to 10,000 German soldiers were present in Kirkenes during the war. The main goal of the Germans was to block British shipments into Murmansk. Additionally, Kirkenes was important during the German invasion of the Soviet Union. When Operation Barbarossa began in 1941, Allied convoys supplied Murmansk with food and materials. It was then sent to Moscow to prevent the fall of the capital. The Germans used Kirkenes to target and attack these convoys.

    Kirkenes became a target for bombing and air raids by both the Allies and the Soviets. Air-raid warnings sounded over 1,000 times and there were over 300 bombing raids. After Malta, Kirkenes was the place in Europe subject to the most intensive bombing.

    The Partisans

    The area around Kirkenes was also important for the partisans. Norwegians signed up to train in espionage in the Soviet Union. After returning to Norway, they set up observation posts along the Finnmark coast. From there, they reported on German shipping and military activity. Their reports were for the Soviet Union.

    They lived in simple conditions and were completely isolated. During the Cold War, many of them ended up with accusations of having Communist sympathies. A memorial for 11 freedom fighters stands near Kirkenes. They helped partisans collect information about the Occupation. They were caught and sent to a POW camp in summer 1943. A couple of months later, they were killed close to the memorial spot.

    The fighting between Kirkenes and Murmansk cost the lives of tens of thousands of soldiers. The terrain is difficult, and the weather made it worse. It was difficult to establish supply chains for the soldiers. Most soldiers either died in action or they froze to death in temperatures as low as -40C/F.

    Over 80 prisons and POW camps were located in the area around Kirkenes, and at one point more than 7,000 Soviet prisoners of war were held in these camps.

    Liberation of Kirkenes & Rebuilding

    In October 1944, Finland and the Soviet Union agreed to a ceasefire. The Germans intensified their plans to retreat from Finnmark. As the Soviets began to advance on Kirkenes, the Germans began their retreat. During the retreat, the Germans used their scorched earth tactic. Anything they passed, they set on fire. Anything that was remaining in Kirkenes after all the bombing raids burned down.

    Most of the population fled to the mines to hide underground. Up to 3,000 people lived in the mines – 11 babies were born there! The movie Under a Stone Sky from 1997 is about this event.

    Only 13 houses were standing after the war. The church that gave the name ‘Kirkenes’ did not survive.

    On the 25th of October 1944, the Soviets entered Kirkenes. The locals gave them a heroes welcome. Kirkenes was the first town in Norway liberated by the Red Army.

    Learn about the history between Kirkenes and Russia by visiting the Grenseland Museum.

    Video about the liberation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bM5cJkXUOx4

    After the liberation, the locals had to live in the ruins and cellars of bombed houses. It took some time for rebuilding to begin. The general shortage of timber meant that materials had to be imported. Many children were sent to Sweden to ‘fatten up’ with Swedish families for a couple years.

    Kirkenes was rebuilt thanks to the Marshall Plan from the United States. Moreover, with the rebuilding, Kirkenes became the first town in Northern Norway to get sealed streets.

    Postwar Developments

    During the Cold War, Kirkenes was just one of two borders between NATO and the Soviet Union (the other was in Turkey) and for much of the 1990s it was the only border between Russia and NATO.

    The mines in Kirkenes re-opened in 1952 and were incredibly important for the post-war building that was taking place all around Europe. However, the iron market fell in the 1990s and Sydvaranger mining completely shut down in 1996. The loss of their traditionally largest industry led to major changes in Kirkenes.

    In the 1990s, Kirkenes underwent changes and became an important city for the Barents region. The Kirkenes Declaration was signed in 1993, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Region was formalised as a collaboration between Finland, Sweden, Norway and Northwest Russia. The core idea was ‘people to people collaboration’ across the borders, especially with Russia after the Cold War ended.

    Kirkenes was finally granted town status in 1998.

    The E6 Highway

    Kirkenes is located on the E6, Norway’s main highway. You can find my guide to the E6 by clicking the link below. 

    Norway's Coastal Ferry

    Kirkenes is a port of call of Norway’s coastal ferry. Find my guide for the coastal ferry by clicking the link below. 

  • History of Hammerfest

    The History of Hammerfest

    The history of Hammerfest is incredibly interesting, and I always get excited explaining it to groups. Who would’ve thought that such a small town could have such a varied and complex history? Anyway, here’s the history of Hammerfest.

    In this article...

    Norway's Coastal Ferry

    Hammerfest is a port of call of Norway’s coastal ferry. Find my guide for the coastal ferry by clicking the link below. 

    Ancient Times

    Many gravesites dating back to the Stone Age can be found in the area around Hammerfest. In Leirbukt a boulder was found that had a 2,500-year-old rock carving representing a boat and three moose. Near the highway is a collection of stones called Stalloen that was a Sami sacrificial site in pre-Christian times. So people have lived here for hundreds of years, but Hammerfest didn’t gain prominence until it became an official market town.

    Hammerfest Gets Market Status

    From ancient times Hammerfest was known as a central fishing village, and it was also central to hunting in the Arctic. The first church was built in 1684, and at around that time, the population was 60. Hammerfest lost its trading right by King Frederick V of Denmark-Norway, who wanted all trade to come out of Bergen. Because of this, Russia began to ship grain to Hammerfest as part of the Pomor Trade.

    In 1789 Hammerfest was given market town rights by royal decree of Christian VII of Denmark-Norway, who was trying to establish new market towns in the Arctic after the collapse of Bergen’s trading monopoly. This makes Hammerfest, together with Vardø, the oldest town in Northern Norway.

    he reason Hammerfest was granted status is due to its strategic position – Hammerfest has long been an important way station for shipping, fishing and Arctic hunting.

    Throughout the 19th century, Hammerfest grew as a major trading port thanks to the Russian trade. The ladies wore the finest Paris fashions, while the men learned how to hunt in the Arctic from the Russians. Polar sea explorations began in the late 18th century, and at the beginning of the 20th century Hammerfest was regarded as the ‘Polar Capital of Norway’. Several major powers set up consulates in Hammerfest, including Russia, England, Holland, France, Hamburg and the United States.

    Napoleonic Wars

    Hammerfest was not spared during the Napoleonic Wars. When Denmark-Norway chose the side of France, the UK saw Hammerfest as a target due to its status as one of the main centres of commerce and transportation in the Arctic. The town was attacked on 22 July 1809 – Hammerfest’s two-cannon batteries and the British warships with a total of 32 cannons made for a surprisingly intense battle that only ended when Hammerfest ran out of gunpowder. Most of the town was able to flee, but the British raided the area over eight days, including taking the church donation box and some of the church’s silver.

    The Great Fire of 1890

    Hammerfest was struck by a fire in 1890 which started at the bakery and wiped out almost half of the houses in town. After the fire, Hammerfest received donations and humanitarian assistance from across the world, with the biggest single donor being Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany. The Kaiser had personally visited the town several times on his yacht and had great affection for the small northern settlement.

    Electric Street Lights

    In 1891, Hammerfest became the first urban settlement in Northern Europe to get electrical street lights. The invention was brought by two of the town’s merchants who had seen it demonstrated at a fair in Paris.

    Hammerfest in 1890

    Hammerfest street in 1920

    Hammerfest in 1920

    Hammerfest 1938

    World War II

    After their victory in the Norwegian Campaign, the Germans soon fortified Hammerfest and used it as a major base. The importance of Hammerfest to the Germans increased dramatically after they invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. The occupiers installed three coastal batteries in and around Hammerfest, and the main U-boat base for Finnmark was located here. It was central to the vessels attacking the Allied supply convoys to Russia.

    Hammerfest was an important base during the Second World War. The Germans occupied the town and used it as a major base after invading the Soviet Union in 1941. The main German U-boat base in the county of Finnmark was in Hammerfest, and the garrison was protected by 4,000 mines and numerous anti-aircraft guns. The garrison in Hammerfest was also protected by around 4,000 mines and numerous anti-aircraft guns.

    The first time Hammerfest was bombed by the Soviets was on 14 February 1944, doing little damage to the town. The Soviets bombed a second time on 29 August 1944, and this did significantly more damage to the buildings and infrastructure, and two local transport ships were sunk.

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    German soldiers in Hammerfest

    The population was forcibly evacuated by the Germans in the autumn of 1944 after the Soviet offensive was pushing into Norway. Hammerfest was then looted and burned to the ground by the Germans, and by 10 February 1945 the town was completely destroyed.

    The only building remaining was the chapel. Mines and munitions left over from WWII are still being found and disposed of in the Hammerfest area.

    The Museum of Reconstruction tells the story of World War II in Hammerfest.

    Post-War Growth

    Hammerfest saw massive growth in the post-war years, partly from people moving to the city after abandoning their smaller villages. The fishing industry also became important in Hammerfest.

    Chapel in 1946

    Liked reading about the history of Hammerfest? Click here to read about what Hammerfest is like today.

    Hammerfest in 1946

    Hurtigruten M/S Midnatsol in Hammerfest

    Hammerfest in 1960

    Norway's Coastal Ferry

    Hammerfest is a port of call of Norway’s coastal ferry. Find my guide for the coastal ferry by clicking the link below. 

  • The History of Tromsø

    The History of Tromsø

    Tromsø is a cool city, in every sense of the word. It is the largest city in Northern Norway and is also one of the first settlements in the far north by Norwegians. Sami and Norwegian populations have lived alongside one another here for a thousand years, and in the last few centuries, the town has been built up as an important Arctic port. Here’s the history of Tromsø – everything you need to know before you go!

    In this article...

    Norway's Coastal Ferry

    Tromsø is a port of call of Norway’s coastal ferry. Find my guide for the coastal ferry by clicking the link below. 

    Tromsø´s Early History

    It’s believed that the area around Tromsø has been inhabited since the end of the Ice Age. The area around Tromsø became ice-free around 10,500 years ago. The area was first inhabited by the Sami people, and traces of Sami settlement can be found in the fjord areas around the city. At some point, Norwegians also settled in the area. Archaeological excavations have taken place at nearby Tønsvika, and they have turned up artefacts and remains of buildings that are believed to be up to 10,000 years old.

    The First Settlement in Tromsø

    During the Middle Ages, both Sami and Norwegian people lived here. Perhaps the earliest resident we know about is Ottar, the Viking traveller we met in Finnsnes (if travelling northbound on Hurtigruten). As mentioned in Finnsnes, Ottar lived somewhere in Troms, and one of the possibilities is near present-day Tromsø. He described himself as living “furthest to the north of all Norwegians” with areas north of this being populated by the Sami. Tromsø’s location correlates with this; Icelandic sources from the 12th-century state that the fjord ‘Malangen’ near Tromsø was a border between the Norse and Sami settlements, though there were some living on either side of the border. Both Norse and Sami Iron Age remains have been found on Kvaløya, the neighbouring island to Tromsø.

    The name Tromsø is a bit of a mystery; one theory suggests that ‘Troms’ derives from the old name of the island as several islands and rivers have the same name, which may derive from the word ‘straumr’ which means a strong stream. Another theory is that Tromsø was originally called ‘Store Tromsøya’ due to a characteristic mountain known as ‘Tromma’ (the Drum). The mountains name in Sami, Rumbbučohkka, is identical in meaning, and it is said to have been a sacred mountain for the Sami in pre-Christian times. The Sami name for the island is Romsa, which is assumed to be a loan word from Norse. The ‘ø’ at the end is an Old Norse (and present-day Danish) word for ‘island’ (today in Norway we say ‘Øy’ for island).

    Tromsø´s First Church

    The first church was built on Tromsøya island (the island where Tromsø is today) in 1252 and was believed to be commissioned by King Håkon Håkonsson, and the first time Tromsø is mentioned in historical documents is in The Saga of Håkon Håkonsson. It was called “The Church of Saint Mary in Troms near the heathens”, which just rolls off the tongue and refers to the Sami people, who followed their religion that wasn’t exactly in line with the new Norwegian Catholic religion. At the time, it was the northernmost church in the world. King Håkon also commissioned the building of a turf rampart called Skansen to protect the island against attacks from the Karelians (from Karelia, an area between the White Sea and the Gulf of Finland) and Russia. Today no traces of the original church remain (it was a simple wooden building), though it may have been built where the present-day Tromsø Cathedral is. Skansen still exists in the form of a grass mound with a diameter of 50 metres, and it’s visible near the Polar Museum.

    Historic Meeting Place

    While Tromsø didn’t develop into a proper town for another 500 years, it did become a settlement and meeting place. Few people did live here, and because of the church, more people from further away travelled to worship at Tromsø. Back then it was compulsory, and if you didn’t show up to church, you’d receive a fine or imprisonment. So, while Tromsø didn’t have a large population, it became a local meeting place for isolated communities in the area.

    Tromsø was also an important location for Norway when considering the proximity to Russia. Originally, the border extended towards the Lyngen Alps, and the state of Novgorod in Russia was able to tax the Sami up until this point. Norway was also able to tax the Sami as far east as the Kola Peninsula. So, the Sami people had to pay taxes to both states if they lived in that area. Sometimes even the Swedes and Finns would try to claim tax from the Sami, depending on where they lived! During the next 500 years, Norway’s border with Russia and Norwegian settlement would extend east towards Varanger, near Kirkenes, making Tromsø lose its status as a ‘frontier town’.

    Tromsø Begins to Grow

    While Tromsø wasn’t really a town until the 18th century, there is evidence of people living here (besides the first church). Back then, if someone living as far north as Tromsø wanted to trade, they had to travel to Vågan in Lofoten or to Bergen in the south-west. The first trader was mentioned as coming from Tromsø in 1536 when they had travelled south to conduct trade. It’s believed it was the priests of the church that were the ones making the trip to Vågån to trade; it was common back then for the priests to also be merchants. We also know people were living here in the early 17th century, as Tromsø (like many other places in Northern Norway) conducted witchcraft trials, and three people were burned at the stake. Then, in the early 18th century, a new church was built to replace the old one.

    Settling the North

    During the 17th century, Denmark-Norway was solidifying its claim to the northern coast of Scandinavia, and Skansen was reinforced at Tromsø. Then, despite being home to only around 80 people, in 1794 Tromsø was issued a city charter by King Christian VII. This coincided with the abolition of Bergen’s centuries-old monopoly on the trade of cod. Bergen lost its trading privileges in 1789, and the people in Northern Norway were now free to trade with whoever they wanted. Hammerfest and Vardø were the first towns to get city status, but Norway wanted a third city in the North, and a debate had arisen as to where it would be. Candidates were Gibostad near Finnsnes and Gausvik near Harstad, but in the end, Tromsø was the city that won.

    The development and growth of Tromsø wasn’t immediate; in 1807 the population was only 100. And even though a new church had been completed in 1803, the present-day Elverhøy Church (it was relocated in 1861) and in 1804 the Diocese of Hålogaland was created and headquartered in Tromsø. The town was met with hard times during the Napoleonic Wars; in 1812 the town was attacked by English forces. In the Battle of Pølsehamna, the small Danish-Norwegian garrison set itself so strongly to counter that the English didn’t dare to enter the city; the day they left, the 2nd of August 1812, is still celebrated as an important anniversary in the Danish Naval Defence.

    The Pomor Trade

    During the 19th century, the Pomor Trade with Russia became increasingly popular. Trade with Russia had begun in 1725, while Bergen still had the trading monopoly, and Tromsø (before it got city rights) was the starting point for the trading routes eastwards and became one of the most important Pomor Trade Centres in the north. Pomor Trade continued until the Russian Revolution in 1917.

    Arctic Hunting

    Arctic hunting started around 1820 with expeditions to Svalbard, Greenland, and even as far west as Canada. By 1850, Tromsø had developed into a major centre of Arctic hunting, overtaking the former centre Hammerfest. Tromsø had direct trading links with Arkhangelsk, Bordeaux, and Central Europe. The trade of Arctic goods, whether it be hides, skins, bones or food, accelerated the development of the town and the entire harbour area on the east side of the island was developed as a continuous urban area of piers and residential houses with large gardens. Some of these buildings remain, especially the mansions on Sjøgata and Skippergata.

    Tromsø also became an important departure point from which many Arctic expeditions originated. Explorers like Roald Amundsen, Umberto Nobile and Fritjof Nansen made use of the know-how in Tromsø on the conditions in the Arctic and often recruited their crews in the city.

    Tromsø Develops into a City

    Just 10 years after Arctic hunting had started, Tromsø’s population had risen from a little over 100 to 1,200. Land on the island was sold off so the locals could develop country houses and farmsteads; present-day Hope, Nøysomheden, Charlottenlund and Sommerlyst are the names of such old country estates. Sjøgata (Sea Street) was developed as the main street, while Storgata (Big Street) was a back alley with more modern buildings.

    The increase in trade with other countries, the influx of foreigners and visiting summer tourists introduced new trends among local people. Furniture from Europe, fashions, entertainment and socialising helped develop the town into a cultural hub. Travelling associations brought literature, music, the circus and theatre to the town. Special clubs formed for French, German and Russian language speakers.

    A travel guide from 1841 says:

    ‘No other place in the far north has impressed as us much as Tromsø. The attraction is not its large population but rather to experience its bustling commerce, its lively company, and its rapid rise; to put it another way – the young and invigorating life that is emerging in this booming town.’

    Paris of the North

    Tromsø quickly developed the nickname ‘The Paris of the North’. How this nickname came to be is uncertain, but it is generally assumed that people in Tromsø appeared to be far more sophisticated than what visitors from the south were expecting. The women were often dressed in the finest clothing, the locals had very good formation and language skills, and there was a strong culture in Tromsø. All of this was thanks to the large amount of money that was coming in from the fish and Arctic trade. Also, the people in Tromsø were trading directly with Europe and not going through a trade house such as the one in Oslo. Several places in Tromsø have French names because of these strong trading links.

    The commercial and cultural development of Tromsø continued, and in 1838 the postal ship ‘Prinds Gustav’ began sailing to Tromsø during the summer route from Trondheim. In 1848, the teacher training college moved from Trondenes (near Harstad) to Tromsø with part of its mission being to educate Sami scholars – there was a quote ensuring the Sami gained access. The same year, the Tromsø Shipyard was established. In 1847, a local ferry began sailing from Tromsø to the outlying villages. Tromsø Cathedral was built in 1861 and Tromsø Museum opened in 1872; the same year the first railway planning committee met to discuss building a rail network. Tromsø still does not have a rail network. Mack Brewery was founded in 1877.

    By 1890, the population had increased to 6,000. In 1893, the first Hurtigruten ship called at Tromsø. At the start of the 1900s, better quays and breakwaters were built, providing safer facilities for fishing boats and steamships. By this time, almost all of Tromsø island had been cleared for housing or building, so neighbouring municipalities were swallowed up to become Tromsø. Today, Tromsø is one of the largest municipalities in Norway by area.

    World War II

    When Germany invaded Norway in 1940, Tromsø briefly served as the seat of the Norwegian Government while King Haakon VII and the government hide out here. They left Tromsø with the cruiser Devonshire on 7 June 1940 and would not return to Norway after the war.

    The Battleship Tirpitz

    Tirpitz var en av andre verdenskrigs store drama - Visit Nord-Norge
    Tirpitz as it can be seen today

    Tromsø was an important base for the Germans throughout the war, and the city escaped the war unscathed. The most dramatic event to happen in Tromsø throughout the war involves the Tirpitz. The German Battleship Tirpitz was sunk by RAF Avro Lancaster during Operation Catechism off Tromsøya Island on 12 November 1944, killing close to 1,000 German soldiers. The Tirpitz was the largest German battleship ever built. It still lies off the coast and is visible during low tide.

    “South Point”, which was established in 1941 for political prisoners. The first prisoners were male Jews from Tromsø. There were around 120 men in the camp. The second camp was “Krøkebaersletta”, which was a camp for political prisoners who had participated in military resistance. The prisoners here were subject to terrible treatment. On 20 October 1943, eight prisoners were sentenced to death and executed. The number of prisoners at any one time was around 250, though 2,500 prisoners passed through here on their way to larger camps. The third camp was “Isrenna”, established in 1942 for Russian prisoners of war. After the war, both Krøkebaersletta and Isrenna were used as prison camps for traitors and members of the Gestapo.

    During the forced evacuation of Northern Norway, which was being devastated due to the Germans ‘scorched earth’ policy, Tromsø received 7381 evacuees from the area. Additionally, 6000 Germans came to Tromsø after leaving Finland; this brought the total number of German soldiers in Tromsø at the end of the ear to 14,000. At the end of the war, more refugees from Northern Norway went to Tromsø and stayed there; resulting in a huge boom in the population.

    Post-war Growth

    Expansion after World War II was rapid. More municipalities merged with Tromsø, tripling the population. Overall, population growth has been strong compared to many places in the north, with the population growing by more than 1,000 every year even today.

    The rapid growth led to many areas being overlooked, and Tromsø became a run-down city. Many materials and money were being sent elsewhere in Northern Norway to try and rebuild destroyed towns. This lack in care led to two major fires in Tromsø in 1948 and 1969, so while Tromsø was one of the towns saved from destruction during the war, many of the pre-war buildings were destroyed by fire.

    Throughout the 1960s Tromsø got many new structures. In 1960, the Tromsdalen bridge was built, connecting the island to the mainland; in 1961, the cable car opened. The Tromsø Airport and famous Arctic Cathedral were completed in 1964, and then in 1972, the University of Tromsø was opened. The local teachers college and the museum were incorporated into the University. Today, the University is the third largest in the country.

    In the 1990s, an underwater bridge was built connecting the island to the mainland. The Norwegian Polar Institute was moved to Tromsø from Oslo in 1998.

    Norway's Coastal Ferry

    Tromsø is a port of call of Norway’s coastal ferry. Find my guide for the coastal ferry by clicking the link below. 

  • The History of Trondheim: Vikings, Christianity & World War II

    The History of Trondheim

    Trondheim is one of Norway’s most important historic cities. The history of Trondheim is like reading from the Norse sagas. It was inhabited during the Viking Age and was chosen as the place where the Vikings, who were raised in England under Catholicism, would land in an attempt to Christianise the pagan Norwegians. There are two Olavs accredited with this – who you’ll learn about below – and today one of them is buried under Nidaros Cathedral, one of Norway’s most important churches. After suffering fire after fire, the city became less important, but today it is noted for its prestigious University and fascinating town centre.

    Here’s my summary of the history of Trondheim: everything you need to know before you go.

    In this article...

    The E6 Highway

    Trondheim is located on the E6, Norway’s main highway. You can find my guide to the E6 by clicking the link below. 

    Norway's Coastal Ferry

    Tromsø is a port of call of Norway’s coastal ferry. Find my guide for the coastal ferry by clicking the link below. 

    The pre-history of Trondheim

    The history of Trondheim begins thousands of years ago. People have lived here since the BCs, as evidenced by the 300+ rock carvings that have been found in the area. They depict not just the animals of the region (elk, red deer, halibut, salmon, etc), but also show people gathering, hunting and fishing.

    Before Trondheim was officially founded, the area was known as Øretinget. An Øretinget is an assembly for representatives from each reason, who would meet to award legal judgements and pass laws. It eventually developed into an assembly where the King of Norway was proclaimed, and it’s believed that Harald Fairhair was proclaimed at this assembly. 

    The Early Years & Battle for Christianity

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    Olav Tryggvason

    Trondheim was officially founded in the year 997 by Olav Tryggvason (960s-1000), a Viking King who had returned from England to Christianise Norway. He established Nidaros, as the town was called, on the edge of the river Nid, which twists around the peninsula before emptying into the fjord. 

    Olav’s goal was to resist and Christianise the pagans, which was the main religion at the time. While he did find some success, he was killed in the Battle of Svolder in 1000. 

     

    Olav Haraldsson (St. Olav)

    Shortly after Olav Tryggvason’s death, another Olav decided to become king of Norway. A descendent of the first King Harald Fairhair, Olav Haraldsson had been a Viking since the age of 12, travelling throughout Northern Europe. He returned to Norway in 1015 to establish himself as the King in Trondheim. To cement this title, he built himself a wooden church, St. Clemens, shortly after. 

    Olav II also wanted to Christianise Norway, but he had a slightly different approach than Olav I. His approach was to travel to the small villages, meet the locals, and tell them to become Christian or he’ll kill them. This brutal plan was effective; once a village knew that Olav II was visiting, they’d quickly build a Christian church over their old pagan worshipping site. Many of these churches are stave churches: Catholic wooden churches with pagan motifs on them. 

    Eventually, and perhaps unsurprisingly, Olav II’s methods made some wealthy pagans angry. Olav was forced to flee to Russia in 1028 but decided to come back to Trondheim the following year. As he was making his return, he was met by the angry pagans in Stiklestad (95km/51 miles away), who killed him in the
    Battle of Stiklestad
    in 1030. 

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    Battle of Stiklestad 1030

    Stiklestad

    I visited Stiklestad in 2021 and wrote about all the places you can visit that relate to this famous battle and st. Olav. You can read my guide to Stiklestad below.  

    St. Olav & the First Church Construction

    After he died, his followers secretly took Olav’s body to Trondheim and buried him somewhere near the present-day Nidaros Cathedral. Strange things began to happen. There was an eclipse of the sun, and a spring came from his grave that was believed to have healing powers. Some of Olav’s blood was placed in a blind man’s eye and the man’s vision was restored. 

    Several months after this death, Olav’s body was exhumed and his hair, beard and nails were seen to have grown. By this point, Olav had a large following – the Cult of Olav – and this following not only unified the country, but it also Christianised it. While Olav wasn’t around to see it, he had succeeded in Christianising Norway. His casket was placed into Kristkirken (Christ Church) in 1070 and Olav was canonised as the Saint of Norway. 

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    Kristkirken over the layout of the present-day Nidaros Cathedral

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    The evolution of Nidaros Cathedral – Kristkirken is in the red section

     

    The Norwegian Civil War

    Trondheim quickly developed as a major religious centre, furthered by the fact that it became the episcopal seat in 1080, and pilgrims from Europe started coming to visit St. Olav’s Casket at Kristkirken, which later became known as Nidaros Cathedral. The church was continuously extended throughout the 12th century, and officially completed in 1320 (it burned down a few years later, though, kickstarting centuries of rebuilding and burning down). The Archbishops Palace was constructed in 1152 as the religious and political centre of the Kingdom of Norway, which not only included Norway but also the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Isle of Man, Iceland and Greenland.

    Reformation and Danish Union

    While Norway had not been a truly independent country since 1380 due to the Kalmar Union, it was the Reformation in 1536/7 that reconfirmed Norway as a Danish territory under Danish rule. Norway, a catholic country at the time, was forced to convert to the Lutheran (Protestant) religion after the Danish king adopted the doctrine of Lutheran. Many old Catholic churches were torn down to make way for new Lutheran churches, and many historic buildings were left untouched, eventually deteriorating into ruin. As Nidaros Cathedral and the Archbishops were symbols of the Catholic religion, the Danes prevented any repairs done to the cathedral after a major fire, and the Palace was turned into a military base. The last Catholic bishop of Trondheim, Olav Engelbrektsson, fled to the Netherlands. Olav’s casket, as well as most items in the church, were taken by the Danes and melted to be made into coins. 

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    Kristiansten Fort was built to defend Trondheim from the Swedes

    The Many Wars with Sweden

    You’ll notice as you walk around that Trondheim has lots of timber buildings. Due to the proximity of forests, the main building material has always been timber. This, of course, means that Trondheim has also caught fire many times. The first major fire was in 1295 when much of the town and the Episcopal Palace was destroyed. In 1328, just 8 years after the 150-year construction of Nidaros Cathedral ended, the church burned down. It had been richly decorated and was regarded as Norway’s finest and most holy palace. A complete restoration was carried out, but a new fire in 1432 caused considerable damage. The town was destroyed by fire in 1531, but at this time the rebuilding was greatly limited. After the Reformation in 1537, the church now lacked importance. Parts of the church were left without a roof and stood in ruins for almost 400 years. 

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    The town plan after the fire of 1681 by Cicignon

    The most famous fire is the fire of 1681 when the town once again burned down. This caused the citizens to rethink how they built the town, and the town planner General John Caspar de Cicignon (1625-1696) from Luxembourg was called to Trondheim to redesign the city with fire prevention in mind. He adopted a grid system with wide, open streets and a quadratic layout. It is regarded as the finest example of a Baroque town plan in Norway and is the layout you’ll see today.

    Still, it wasn’t fireproof. In 1708, the town was ravaged by fire. Nidaros Cathedral was destroyed – only the stone walls remained. Restoration of the church was only just completed when it was again struck by lightning in 1719. The church was rebuilt once again, but this time in a very simple design; for example, a simple pyramid-shaped roof was constructed over the old tower and the octagonal chancel was crowned by a dome in the Baroque style. 

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    Trondheim in 1898

    Several more fires occurred between 1788 and 1842. The street plans changed slightly to try and stop fire jumping, and in 1845 a new rule was introduced that said all buildings had to be built in stone. The locals were surprisingly stubborn about this and insisted on building in wood. They wanted Trondheim to always be a ‘timber town’. After a fire in 1899, they decided that maybe Trondheim should be built in stone. A brick law was enforced. 

    The City Fires

    The 16th and 17th century in Scandinavian history is typically characterised by the many battles between Denmark/Norway and Sweden. As Trondheim is close to the Swedish border, the town became involved in some of these battles. In the Seven-Year War, which lasted between 1563 and 1570, the Swedish Army entered Trondheim and laid siege to the town for two months. During a new war in the years 1567/58 that was won by Sweden, the country of Trøndelag was ceded to the Swedes, though it was only Swedish territory for several months. The Norwegians built Kristiansten Fortress to defend themselves against the Swedes. 

    19th Century Industrial Growth

    Trondheim has always been a major industrial centre for timber, mining and brickworks. The first brick factory opened in the 1200s (and yet it took them over 600 years to decide to use it as a building material), and timber factories existed along the river. The modern industry arrived in the 19th century with the construction of a textiles factory near the river in 1843. Between 1842 and 1870 there was considerable economic development in Trondheim; several businesses that used manual labour became industrialised. The towns commercial and industrial enterprises followed the international trends, with considerable development around the time of the First World War and the depression between the wars. 

    World War II

    Like the other major cities in Norway, Trondheim was occupied on the 9th of April 1940 by German forces. The heavy cruiser ‘Admiral Hipper’ and four destroyers were anchored in the harbour, and 1,700 German troops oversaw the occupation. Trondheim was of strategic importance to the Germans; it was considered the ‘gateway’ to Northern Norway and the Trondheimsfjord provided a haven for German ships preparing to attack the Allied convoys heading for Murmansk. The Germans built U-boat pens along the harbour, a major defence fort at Munkholmen, and coastal forts along the fjord.

    Resistance groups and martial law

    A strong resistance group was active in Trondheim, working with the British via secret radio transmission and distributing illegal newspapers. Their acts of resistance eventually angered the German Reichskommissar Josef Terboven, who decided to implement martial law in the city. He arrived in Trondheim on the 5th of October 1942, and by the 6th of October there were signed all over the city notifying citizens of the ‘martial law’. The conditions for martial law included a curfew from 8pm to 5am, a general prohibition against the use of railroads for transport, and a prohibition against gatherings. Violations were to be punished with no less than 10 years’ imprisonment at hard labour camps or with capital punishment. 13,000 police officers were mobilised to enforce the law. 

    Terboven announced to the civilians from the town square that 10 prominent citizens of Trondheim had been executed as ‘atonement sacrifices’. A well-known concentration camp was situated just north of Trondheim, called Falstad, and nearby was the Falstadskogen (Falstad Woods), which were known as a killing ground. When Terboven made the announcement, eight of the citizens hadn’t been executed yet. Rather, they were being held at the Gestapo Headquarters at Misjonhotellet and had heard the announcement of their deaths. They were taken to Falstadskogen, blindfolded, and placed two by two in a mass grave. They were shot at short range by a firing squad of 10.

    In the following two days, an additional 24 residents were arrested and executed. A dozen or so Jewish men were arrested, 1,434 properties were raided, and 93 Norwegian individuals were arrested. Everyone killed or arrested had some connection to the Norwegian resistance or was just a well-liked member of society whose arrest was to ‘send a message’. Martial law was lifted on the 12th of October once Terboven was confident he had stopped the resistance. However, these measures did little to stop the Norwegians. Rather, they only grew stronger, more organised and coordinated. 

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    A memorial at Falstadskogen

    The Jewish population of Trondheim

    There was intense persecution of the Trondheim Jewish population that began at the local synagogue before spreading throughout the rest of the country. The Trondheim Synagogue was confiscated in April 1942, and in autumn that year Ernst Flesch, a ruthless anti-Semite, had become the commander of the Security Service for Trondheim. By summer 1942, he had taken over almost all business owned by Jews and had arrested the owners. The arrested and executed another four Jews for listening and spreading Norwegian news from London. In October 1942, the remaining Jews were arrested – this was the first city in the country to carry out the mass arrests. By November 1942, all Jews in Trondheim had been arrested and deported, where they would all be killed at a concentration camp, or they were imprisoned in a Norwegian concentration camp. Only a few managed to escape to Sweden. 

    Falstadskogen

    You can read my article about the Falstad Centre & Forest via the link below. 

    Trondheim Today

    Today, Trondheim is Norway’s third-largest city and is often referred to as the ‘technology capital’ of the country. This can be attributed to the large number of start-up companies that can be found in the city, but also because of the university the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). Universities came to Norway late due to the Danish union (if you wanted an education back then, you had to go to Copenhagen). The first college in Trondheim was founded in 1760 as the ‘Det. Kgl. Norske Videnskabers Selskab’, or the Royal Scientific Society. The Norwegian Technical College opened in 1910. Throughout the 20th century, colleges for Arts and Sciences and Medicine opened.

    NTNU University

    In 1996, all of these colleges were brought together and became NTNU. NTNU has a professional basis in education and research, social sciences, humanistic sciences, scientific objects, medicine, architecture and art. 

    There are approximately 36,000 university or college students in Trondheim. The students are particularly known for their volunteer work, and the student society is run by more than 1,200 volunteers. NTNU is also known for closely collaborating with industries and has some of the closest industrial links in the world. NTNU is famous for its research, and there are 4,500 scientific staff and at any time the university is running more than 2000 research projects. In 2017, NTNU was ranked first in the world for universities with corporate links. Many of its Master and PhD programmes are in English, and NTNU offers a free Norwegian language course online if you are interested in learning. 

    In 2014, Professors May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser at NTNU were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries of how the brain creates a map of space around us to navigate complex medical surroundings. They share the award with John O’Keefe of the University College London.

    Scientific Institutions & Sport

    St. Olav’s Hospital is one of the major university hospitals in the country. The hospital has 8,69 employees and treats 725,000 patients every year. It specialises in back injuries and neuroscience.

    There are several scientific organisations in Trondheim. One of them is SINTEF, the largest independent research organisation in Scandinavia. Of their 1,800 employees, 1,300 of them are located in Trondheim. The Geological Survey of Norway is also located in Trondheim and is a major geoscientific institution with 220 employees of which 70% are scientists. 

    Image result for Granåsen Ski Centre

    Trondheim is regarded as the cross-country ski capital of Norway due to the fact its produced so many Olympians. The Granåsen Ski Centre is a major Nordic skiing venue that regularly hosts competitions. Trondheim is also known for its football club Rosenborg, which has won the Norwegian Premier League 26 times between 1967 and 2018 and has reached the UEFA Champions League group stage 12 times.

    The E6 Highway

    Trondheim is located on the E6, Norway’s main highway. You can find my guide to the E6 by clicking the link below. 

    Norway's Coastal Ferry

    Tromsø is a port of call of Norway’s coastal ferry. Find my guide for the coastal ferry by clicking the link below. 

  • The History of Oslo

    The History of Oslo

    The history of Oslo is truly fascinating. While today the city is very modern and there may seem like there are few traces of its beginnings, there are hints of history everywhere.

    Here’s my summarised history of Oslo!

    In this article...

    Humble Beginnings

    Oslo is one of the oldest places in Norway; the area around the Oslofjord has been inhabited since the last ice age due to its rich agricultural land. The oldest settlements date back to the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. Historically the area was called Viken, which means ‘the bay’.

    It’s believed that the Oslofjord was an important place for the Vikings; this is mostly because three Viking ships have been found in the area. These are now on display at the Viking Ship Museum. The first church, St. Clements Church (Klemenskirken), was built in Oslo around the year 1000. Sadly the church is no more; its ruins can be seen in the Middelalderparken just outside the city centre.

    File:Medieval Oslo map.jpg

     

    Medieval Oslo. Akershus is on the bottom left. The hilly area to the right is Ekeberg.

    Oslo wasn’t officially founded until 1049. It was founded by King Harald Hardråde (Harald Hardruler), but it was his son, Olav Kyrre (Olav the Peaceful, who also founded Bergen), who set up a cathedral and a bishopric. Oslo wasn’t where it is today; rather it was founded closer to the region around Ekeberg and where the Barcode is today (the region called Gamle Oslo (Old Oslo) highlights this).

     

    Mariakirken Oslo

    Throughout the 12th century, cathedrals and a cathedral school were built around the city. This includes Mariakirken, which would’ve looked similar to the church in Bergen. Sadly, like St. Clements, only its ruins remain.

    At the time it was Trondheim that was the capital of Norway. In 1219, the capital moved to Bergen. It wasn’t until 1299 that Oslo got its title as the Capital of Norway.

    The Capital of Norway

    In 1299, King Håkon V decided to move from Bergen to Oslo, and with that, the capital moved. He cemented the city’s status as the capital when he had the Akershus Fortress built in 1299.

    Everything changed in 1350 when the Black Plague came to Oslo. Around half of the town’s population passed away, and the churches began to lose income. This is around the time that the Hanseatic merchants came in to take over trade, and the churches fell into ruins.

    The entire country had lost a lot during the Plague, and because of that, it was forced into a Danish union.

    Danish Union, Fires, and Kristiania

    The Kalmar Union put the three Scandinavian countries together in 1380, and during this time trade in Oslo was dominated by Hanseatic merchants and the town had little going on.

    In 1536, the Danish and Norwegian union became a formal coalition, and the capital proper was now Copenhagen – though Oslo remained a symbolic capital. Due to the Reformation, in which Norway converted from Catholic to Lutheran, many of the old churches (most of which were already deteriorated) were destroyed by the Danes to make way for Lutheran churches. There are many ruins of churches in Gamle Oslo (the old town) today.

    In 1624, the city changed forever. A massive fire burned for three days, destroying most of the city as it was built in timber. After the fire, King Christian IV of Denmark decided that, rather than rebuilt the old city, he was going to move it and build a whole new city and name it after himself. So, he did. And so Kristiania was born. At the time, it was spelt Christiania, but from 1877 it was spelt Kristiania.

    Image result for oslo 1624
    A statue of Christian IV pointing to where he wants Christiania

    Inspired by contemporary city planning, Kristiania was laid out in a grid close to Akershus Castle. The architecture of the time was Renaissance, and there are glimpses of this style still visible in the old centre of Kristiania. Akershus Fortress was also modernised and converted into a renaissance castle by Christian IV. All citizens and shops were strongly encouraged to move their businesses and homes to the new city, and they did. Around this time, the lower classes started to settle a little out of the city, near Vaterland and Grønland near the Old Oslo area.

    Image result for gamle rådhus oslo
    Oslo’s first town hall from 1641

    The area of Oslo today called Kvadraturen (the quadrature) is where King Christian IV moved the town. The oldest buildings in Oslo can be found here, including Kristiania’s first town hall and the oldest restaurant, Cafe Engebret.

    It wasn’t until the 18th century that Kristiania started to see true growth when the (constant) wars between Denmark and Sweden boosted the town as a major shipbuilding and trading port.

    File:Christiania Norway in 1814 by MK Tholstrup.jpg
    Christiania in 1814. The fortress is visible out on the peninsula.

    Christiania Self-Guided Walk

    I’ve written a self-guided walk for Christiania so you can explore the old town independently. 

    19th Century Capital & Growth

    In 1814, when Norway left the Danish union and was forced into a personal union with Sweden, Kristiania was re-instated as the capital. The 19th century was a period of massive growth for Kristiania; with its status back, several state institutions were established including the Bank of Norway (1828), the Royal Palace (1848) and the Storting (1866). In 1859, many of the surrounding areas were incorporated into Kristiania – including Old Oslo, which at the time was just called Oslo.

    Karl Johans Gate 1890

    The population increased dramatically in the 19th century – from 10,000 in 1814 to 230,000 in 1900. Finally, Kristiania overtook Bergen in terms of population. There was a spectacular building boom during the end of the 19th century, and many new apartments were built around the city centre.

    File:Hjula Veveri JWC.240.jpg
    Akerselva 19th century

    Industry also rose dramatically in the 19th century, especially along the Aker River (Akerselva). Various industries were here, but they were primarily timber and fabrics. This is due to the number of waterfalls on the river, which gave power to numerous industry companies in Oslo.

    File:Stortorvet 7, Stortorvet 8 med Kaffistova, Karl Johans gate 15, 1926, Anders Beer Wilse, Oslo Museum, OB.Y2962.jpg
    Downtown Oslo (Stortorvet) in 1926

    Oslo Returns

    The city and municipality used the name Kristiania until 1 January 1925, when the name was changed back to Oslo. The reason the name was changed is because, after Norway became completely independent in 1905, the locals thought it was inappropriate to have the capital named after a Danish king.

    World War II

    During the Second World War, Oslo (like the rest of Norway) was occupied by German forces. Oslo was one of the first cities in Norway to be occupied; on 9 April 1940 the German ships made their way down the Oslofjord, and while the fortress Oscarsborg was able to sink a major warship and delay the occupation long enough for the King and government to escape, the city was occupied later that day.

    Image result for stortinget oslo nazi
    Parliament with a German sign & Nazi flag flying

    During the war, the main headquarters for the Germans was Victoria Terrasse, a beautiful building close to the Royal Palace. It was in this building that officers held the interrogation centre for all prisoners in Oslo, and the place became synonymous with torture and abuse. On occasion, prisoners jumped out of windows to their death while waiting to be interrogated. Allied bombers tried to destroy it twice, but missed and hit civilian targets.

    Image result for oslo wwii
    Karl Johans Gate

    All ships carrying Jews left for mainland Europe from the Oslofjord, and the German Army executed members of the Norwegian resistance groups at Akershus Fortress. After the war, eight Norwegian traitors who had been tried for war crimes were executed at the fortress, including Vidkun Quisling.

    Modern Oslo

    Oslo 1971

    After the war, Oslo’s City Hall was finished in an area that had previously been a slum. This was also where Aker Brygge was revitalised between 1982 and 1998 and built up as a modern suburb.

    Oslo’s postwar absorption of surrounding towns and suburbs gives us the sprawling city we see today. However, despite this growth, it wasn’t until the discovery of the Ekofisk oil field on Norway’s Continental shelf, that the economy of Oslo changed for good. Oslo transformed into one of the world’s wealthiest and liveable cities.

    Oslo is the most ethnically diverse city in Norway, with 40% of the population first or second-generation immigrant.

    Image result for oslo wwii
    Terrorist attack 2011

    In 2011, Oslo was hit by a terrorist attack carried out by a right-wing extremist. A bomb was detonated in the Government quarter, damaging several buildings including the building that houses the Office of the Prime Minister. Eight people were killed in the attack. The terrorist then disguised as a police officer and killed 69 Labour party-affiliated activists on the island Utøya, about 45 minutes out of the city.

    Oslo City Centre Self-Guided Walk

    I’ve written a self-guided walk for Oslo so you can explore the major highlights of the city. 

  • The Most Famous Bergen World War II Sites

    The Most Famous Bergen World War II Sites

    On the morning of the 9th of April 1940, Norway awoke to the news that Nazi Germany had invaded. The country remained occupied until the war ended on 8 May 1945. Bergen became one of the most important places for German forces on the west coast. They built forts, bunkers, and took over public buildings. I’ve put together a list of the most important Bergen World War II sites.

    The occupation was strategic for the Germans. Norway’s proximity to the United Kingdom was important. Furthermore, the iron ore exports from Narvik meant Germany could produce war materials. The entire coast of Norway became of use for the Germans. It’s easy to see how Norway has a rich war history.

    Join my Bergen walking tour!

    I offer walking tours of the Hanseatic area of Bergen with my company I Love Bergen. 

    In this article...

    Bergen & World War II: the Occupation

    Along with other major cities in Norway, Bergen was occupied on the first day of the German invasion. German warships passed Denmark on the night of the 8th. When the Norwegian fortifications were notified, they began preparations. Forts line the coast around Bergen, but they stood no chance against German ships. The ships came with planes and approximately 1,900 men. The Bergen forts managed to damage one ship, the Koningsberg, but the rest entered the city undamaged.

    The locals awoke on the 9th to a German flag flying at the Bergen Fortress. Heavily armed German guards stood outside public buildings. The occupation had been a success.

    Sites around Bergen

    The Bergen Fortress

    The Bergen Fortress was the main headquarters of the German soldiers during the war. Most of the buildings within the fortress served a purpose. The only building they didn’t use was Håkon’s Hall. Additionally, they constructed some of their own.

    If you are planning to walk around the fortress, I recommend this excellent guide. It’s available printed at Håkon’s Hall & the Rosenkrantz Tower.

    The German Bunker

    The German bunker stands next to Håkon’s Hall. It is one of the few remains of German buildings at the fortress. In 1944, there was a large explosion of a freight ship on the harbour. The telephone exchange was destroyed by the explosion. Using 200 Soviet prisoners of war, a new bunker was built to serve as a communications bunker. The concrete can withstand attacks. After the war, Germany gave Norway some funds to tear it down. However, the bunker remains, though covered in green ivy, as a reminder of the war. Today it’s used by the Norwegian Army.

    The Explosion of Voodbode

    On the 14th of April 1944, a German freight ship docked outside the fortress exploded. The ship, Voorbode, was travelling from Oslo to Kirkenes but stopped in Bergen for repairs. Normally, a ship like this would not be allowed to stop in a major port. It was carrying 124 tonnes of explosives. Due to a lack of proper controls, the ship docked in Bergen.

    The explosion occurred early in the morning. A water column several-hundred metres high rose. Following it was sand, mud, stones, iron plates, timber and steel from the ship. The pressure wave swept the harbour, crushing everything in its path. Houses fell apart, brick buildings suffered damage, and windows 2km away smashed. Bergen was declared a disaster area. 4,536 buildings were either damaged or destroyed. 160 people died, 5,000 were injured, and 5,000 became homeless. 4,260 children were forced to evacuate to prevent illness from spreading.

    Bergenhus Festningsmuseum

    To learn more about the resistance movement during World War II, and everything about the Norwegian army, visit the Bergenhus Festningsmuseum. It is on the edge of Bergenhus near St. Mary’s Church. The exhibition about the resistance movement in Bergen 1940-1945 shows both civilian and military resistance. It demonstrates how the civilians organised against the Nazi Party Nasjonal Samling’s attempts to Nazify Norway.

    It also focuses on the military resistance developed from scattered, isolated groups to a large organisation with ties to London. The torture and execution of resistance members was common. Or they were sent to concentration camps in Europe. Despite this, the resistance movement grew stronger until the liberation. The museum has photos, weapons, espionage equipment, sabotage material, film footage, and interviews. Additional exhibitions are:

    • Women’s contribution to the Norwegian Armed Forces
    • Newspapers in Bergen during the war
    • The underground press 1940-1945
    • Norwegian forces abroad
    • Norwegian Independent Brigade Group
    • History of the fortress
    • Enigma

    The best part is – the museum is free!

    Sverresborg

    Located on a hill behind the Bergen fortress, Sverresborg is a historic fortress. However, the fortress is also interesting when it comes to the Second World War. During WWII, the German occupants established two anti-aircraft batteries in the fortress. After the war, Sverresborg became as an execution site in connection with treason. Seven Germans and one Norwegian war criminal were executed there in 1946. Today, there is no evidence of this, but it’s still worth visiting as it provides excellent views of Bergen.

    Sites around Bryggen

    Bergen’s UNESCO site Bryggen is the epicentre of local history. The wharf is a trading centre from the 11th century onwards. For a few hundred years it was the home of the German merchants, the Hanseatic League. The locals considered Bryggen German until the end of the 19th century.

    After World War II in Bergen, the locals wanted to remove any trace of the city’s German heritage. They planned to get rid of Bryggen. Luckily, a fire led to archaeological excavations which led to the discovery of Bryggen’s rich heritage. Now the wharf is under conservation. We know that Bryggen suffered damage from the explosion, but it was also home to an important resistance group.

    Theta Museum

    The Theta Museum is an important World War II site in Bergen. It the secret base of a well-known resistance group called the Theta Group. Comprised of a group of young students (aged 19-22) form Bergen, the group had some radio equipment and established contact with London. The Theta group acquired information and then passed it to London. Therefore, they assisted the British Army with the Germans in Norway. They told the British about the movements of the battleship Tirpitz. This led to the British sinking the ship near Tromsø.

    They also obtained inside information about the U-boat pens in Laksevåg (see below). The group ended when the Germans discovered their location. Some group members were sent to concentration camps and died. Meanwhile, some fled to Sweden, and some to the United Kingdom. When they returned after the war, they set up their old room to look as it had during the war, and today that room is a museum.

    When visiting the museum, you’ll be able to see their equipment, photographs, newspapers, maps, a gun, and more. It’s a little hard to get into the museum. It’s open from May-September on Tuesdays, Saturdays and Sundays from 2pm-4pm. Note that it’s very small; it’s considered to be the smallest museum in Norway! It’s located in the alley Enhjørningsgården.

    Shetland Memorial

    The Shetland Group (or Shetland Bus) is a group that made a permanent link between Shetland and Norway throughout the Second World War. Operated by small fishing boats and later submarine chasers, it grew to be part of the resistance. The purpose of the group was to transfer agents in and out of Norway. They also provided them with weapons, radios, and other supplies. They would bring out the Norwegians who feared arrest by the Germans.

    Just behind the fish market is a statue of Leif Larsen, one of the famous men of the Shetland group. He made 52 trips to Norway and became a highly decorated Allied naval officer in the Second World War.

    In the mountains

    Rundemanen

    Some old German constructions can be found at the top of Rundemanen and nearby Blåmanen. Sadly I can’t find much information on their history.

    Fløyen WWII Memorial

    If you take a trip to the top of Mt. Fløyen, you’ll notice a World War II memorial just in front of the restaurant. It is in memory of the young people who were members of sports clubs who fell for Norway between 1940 and 1945. You can read about the history of why they have been recognised here: http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMPBBT_World_War_II_Memorial_Bergen_Norway

    Sandviksbatteriet

    A short walk from the city centre, the Sandviken battery was built between 1895 and 1902 to protect Bergen from possible attacks from the Swedes. The battery formed the ‘inner fortification’ to protect Bergen from attacks from the sea. It was not manned when the Germans arrived in April 1940 and did not take part in the defence of Bergen as the Germans invaded. It was then used by the Germans throughout the war.

    Voorbode Anchor

    If you hike up Sandviksfjellet, you’ll come across the anchor from the Voorbode, the German freight ship that exploded on the harbour.

    Surrounding area

    U-boat pen Bruno

    When the Germans occupied Norway, they were able to move their u-boats closer to the front and the United Kingdom. One of the submarine pens they built is Bruno, which is located in the suburb of Laksevåg. It has 3 dry boat pens, 3 wet ones, and one that is used for storage. After the Allied landings in France in June 1944, there was a massive expansion of the U-boat base in Bergen.

    This led to a massive English air raid on October 1944, involving 150 aircraft. The attack ended in disaster when 193 Norwegians, among them 61 children at a nearby school, were killed. There was another attack on Bruno later that month, but the 244 aircraft could not find the target because of heavy clouds. Instead, parts of Bergen’s city centre were bombed. Today the bunker is used by the Norwegian navy for submarine pens. It’s a little hard to see from the city, but if you take any ferry or head out to the tip of Nordnes of Sandviken, you’ll be able to see it.

    Olsvik bunker

    Little historical information exists on this bunker, but a sign outside it states that it was used by the Germans during WWII. The bunker is located in the suburb of Olsvik. To get there, take bus 40 towards Olsvik and get off at the stop ‘Olsvikåsen’. From there, it takes 15-20 minutes to talk to the top.

    Fjell Fortress

    Fjell fortress was the largest German fortress in Norway during the Second World War. Construction began in 1942, and it was completed around July 1943. The fort was designed as being a significant link in the coastal defence of Norway, and it was to stop seaward approach to Bergen.

    To mount the main gun turret, it was necessary to dig 17 metres vertically into the mountain, and this was considered a time-consuming task. The main entrance and gun emplacement were constructed as an open ditch, and later covered with concrete, instead of blasting a tunnel into and down in the solid rock. As a result, water entering the tunnel system has been a problem ever since the tunnel was constructed. The work was carried out by prisoners from Eastern Europe and Norwegian prisoners. 25 prisoners died during construction, either from frostbite, exhaustion, or execution.

    Fjell Fortress is on top of the Fjedlafjedlet Mountain, in the small town Fjell, in Fjell municipality. You can walk around the impressive labyrinth of roads 10 metres underground. The exhibitions are located in an authentic military construction inside the fortress.

    Fjell fortress is located on the island of Sotra. This Nazi coastal battery was rediscovered in 2003. The Nazis established this fortress complex with underground bunkers, barracks, a hospital and storage.

    Herdla Museum

    Located at the tip of Askøy on a moraine island, you can see both a fighter aircraft from World War II and an intact torpedo battery from the Cold War. Exhibitions are about how the island was formed, how it was used as a German airbase, as well as the areas unique bird life.

    The main attraction is the German fighter Yellow-16, which took off from the airbase at Herdla. After 64 years on the seabed, the aircraft was raised and placed at the museum. There are guided tours of the torpedo battery and the tour goes over the Cold War.

    Hellen Fort

    Hellen Fort is located near Sandviken. It was built between 1895 and 1905 and was used by the Germans during World War II. As the Germans were invading Norway on the 9th of April, they bombed the fortress, killing six Norwegians. Here’s a recent article about a recent memorial for the Norwegians who passed away: https://www.ba.no/nyheter/de-ga-alt-for-norge/s/5-8-52480

    Today the fort is mostly a hiking trail, and you can find out about the trail by clicking here.

    Kvarven Fort

    Kvarven fort is from the late 1800s. Designed to protect Norway from a potential attack against Sweden, it was never used. During WWII, 33 officers and 279 corporals and privates with an average age of 40 were at the fort. The fort failed to open fire at the first German ships, mistaking them for unarmed merchant ships. When the fort finally opened fire, it only managed to get off a few shots through the fog at two torpedo boats.

    The German ships did not retaliate but sent a morse coded message in English saying ‘stop shooting’. The fort went on to shoot the cruiser Konigsberg three times, and the ship barely survived. A few hours later, the Kvarven surrendered. German naval personnel manned the fort for the rest of the war. The fort opened in 1993 as a preserved cultural area, and now it’s a nice place to go hiking.

  • The Hanseatic League & Bergen, Simplified.

    The Hanseatic League in Bergen, Simplified.

    If you’re coming to Bergen, you have to visit Bryggen. You’ll see ‘Hanseatic League’ everywhere here, but not much information about what it is. The history of the Hanseatic League in Bergen is fascinating. It’s one of my favourite things to talk about.

    So, I’ve put together a simplified overview of the Hanseatic League in Bergen. If you want to learn more, there’s ton of information online. There’s also some great books available in the museums.

    Join my Bergen walking tour!

    I offer walking tours of the Hanseatic area of Bergen with my company I Love Bergen. 

    In this article...

    What is the Hanseatic League?

    The Hanseatic League was a commercial co-operation in Europe. The members were merchants from market towns throughout north and central Europe. Most of them lived around the Baltic Sea, where they dominated trade for three centuries.

    The word Hanse means ‘convoy’. This word refers to the groups of merchants who would travel between the Hanseatic towns by land or sea.

    The Hanseatic League’s common goal was to dominate trade, protect economic interests, gain diplomatic privileges, and establish trading routes.

    Bergen: Scandinavia's First Commercial Town

    Bergen is generally regarded as Scandinavia’s largest commercial hub. It was the largest city in Scandinavia until the 17th century, and the largest in Norway until the 19th century.

    Bergen became an important trading hub for many reasons. Most importantly, it is in a strategic geographic location. The bay, Vågen, is wide and suited to trading ships. Bergen is roughly halfway between Northern Norway (where the goods came from) and mainland Europe (who wanted the goods). Lastly, Bergen is not far from the Shetland Islands, Faroe Islands and Iceland, who came to Bergen to trade. England is close by, and became Bergen’s first major trading partner.

    Image result for medieval bergen

    Merchants in Bergen traded stockfish from Northern Norway and the islands mentioned above. Stockfish was in demand in Europe because of its longevity and tastiness. Bergen became a good midway point between supply and demand.

    They didn’t trade only stockfish. Fish oil, dried herring, sheep and goat skin, cattle hides, butter and whaling and sealing products were also Norwegian exports. Still, stockfish counted for 80-90% of Norwegian exports.

    The fishermen from Northern Norway brought stockfish to trade with goods from Europe. Wheat from England was important as it didn’t grow in Northern Norway. Beer, wine and modern equipment was also traded.

    With all this going on in Bergen, it’s unsurprising that this got the interest of the Hanseatic League.

    The Arrival of the Germans

    The first mention of German merchants in Bergen is in 1186. King Sverre, who declared himself king during the Civil War, had taken residence in Bergen. Sverre, recognising the Germans, said:

    “We want to thank all the Englishmen who had arrived here, bringing with them wheat and honey, flour or cloth. Also, we want to thank those men who have brought linen or flax, wax or cauldrons. We would also like to mention those who have come from the Orkneys, Shetlands, Faroes, or Iceland – all those who have brought to this country.

    The Germans arrive here in large numbers and with large ships. They intend to take away butter and cod to the detriment of the country, and bring in return wine that people go in for buying. Their trade has brought much evil and nothing good.” – King Sverre

    It’s clear Sverre wasn’t thrilled with the Germans, and who can blame him. After all, the introduction of wine in Bergen had caused excessive drinking, which then caused fights – some even killing people!

    The Germans started coming to Bergen as the Hanseatic League was growing in Europe. The main ‘hub’ for the Hanseatics was Lubeck. The ‘Lubeckers’ started to recognise the popularity of Bergen as a trading town. Moreover, the Lubeckers had advantages over other merchants as they were well connected. Eventually, they took over the English wheat trading. Also, instead of using Bergen merchants as the middle man, they traded directly with the fishermen. The fishermen became dependent on Hanseatic products. They began to seek out only German merchants.

    The Early German Traders

    The first Hanseatic merchant began to rent accommodation in Bergen in 1259. Shortly after, another German bought the house. By 1300, Bryggen (the wharf) was dominated by German merchants.

    Not only German merchants came to Bergen. German craftsmen came to take advantage of the trade business. Shoemakers from Germany were granted a monopoly of shoemaking. Other craftsmen who came to Bergen included goldsmiths, furriers, tailors, cutters, bakers, and barbers (Fun fact: The German Hanseatics brought the cinnamon and the skills that perfect Bergen’s famous and unique cinnamon bun!).

    In 1294, the King of Norway granted merchants from German towns the right to sell freely in Norwegian towns. They were not allowed to sell in rural locations, and could not sail further north than Bergen. Lastly, he declared that Bergen was to be the main place for trade with Northern Norway and the islands. This was good news for the Hanseatic League.

    The Hanseatic League

    During the start of the 14th century, the Germans became a little bit more organised. They established their area around Bryggen as an official Hanseatic Kontor (office). Bergen is the fourth kontor; the others are Novgorod, Brugge and London.

    The royals in Norway didn’t like Bergen becoming a Kontor. They tried to fight against the Kontor having its own laws. The Germans continuously fought back, and it got nasty. For example, in 1311, the Bishop of Bergen said the Germans must pay tax. The Germans refused, boycotted trade, killed the Bishop, 60+ locals, and burned down the monastery. Eventually, they got their way.

    The dominance of the Hanseatic League in Bergen settled thanks to the Black Death. The Black Death killed 70% of Bergen’s population. The loss in population saw the trade business shut down. Warehouses were abandoned, and the government and royals lost power. However, Europe still wanted stockfish. The King allowed the Germans to settle in abandoned warehouses along Bryggen.

    The authorities tried to govern the Germans, but it became impossible. The Hanseatic League was too powerful and too organised. They also controlled trade, and Norway needed supplies coming in. Against the wishes of the Norwegians, the Hanseatic League chased out Dutch and English merchants. 1,000 Hanseatic merchants lived in Bryggen, which became their own city within Bergen.

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    Image result for The German Kontor in 1817 by J.F. L Dreier

    Organisation on Bryggen

    German merchants owned firms, located inside the tenements (long rows of buildings) on Bryggen. Each tenement had up to 15 firms inside. The Germans owned the building but not the land.

    Each firm had storerooms, sleeping quarters, living rooms and workshops. Each tenement had a quay at the front, a crane, a private passage along the tenement, and a kitchen at the back.

    The firm had a manager, while the owner lived in Germany. The manager oversaw the capital and used it to pay for the stockfish. The manager kept a small part of the profit. The goal was to save enough money to buy a firm, go back to Germany, and live very comfortably.

    The Hanseatic League operated a complicated trade system, often down through credit. The managers oversaw the credit system. They were so meticulous and careful with paperwork. The museum in Bergen has all the paperwork showing every manager and every transaction back to the 16th century.

    The German merchants needed to secure a regular flow of stockfish from North Norway. They paid the fishermen (in forms of wheat and goods from Europe) in advance. Money was never used on Bryggen. The fisherman was then tied to the German through this kind of debt. If the fisherman brought less stockfish, they could make up for it the next year.

    The fishermen and the firms had a good relationship. They trusted each other, and would work together for many generations. While the Hanseatics were not popular in Bergen, they were popular in Northern Norway.

    The Hanseatic League didn’t only rely on Northern Norway. They traded with Iceland, the Faroes, Shetland for goods from the north. In Norway, they traded with ecclesiastical institutions, local magnates and clergymen. Even the Crown ended up working with the Hanseatic League.

    Social Life, Law & Order

    Governing the Hanseatic League on Bryggen took place in the Merchants House. The building stood in the middle of Bryggen; today it’s where the wooden and brick buildings meet. Six merchants sat on the council, settling legal matters in cooperation with the council in Lubeck. If someone wanted to appeal, they’d have to go to the Hanseatic Court in Lubeck.

    St. Mary’s Church was the Hanseatic parish church. In 1408, the church was formally assigned to the Hanseatics by the Bishop of Bergen. It remained theirs until 1766. The Hanseatic League loved the church. They mention the church in their wills, donated artwork, and were often buried outside the church.

    The End of the Hanseatic League

    The reasons why the Hanseatic League continued to succeed on Bryggen varies. Firstly, Norway was a poor country with few skilled merchants. The Germans were very skilled in the fish trade and had great knowledge of the European markets. They were useful to the Norwegian economy. Importantly, the King didn’t want to shut them down until the Norwegians had the resources and strength to export the fish themselves. Secondly, the North Norwegians fought to keep the Hanseatic League operating. As late as 1680, they were saying that the Hanseatic League ending in Bryggen would be a disaster. To further complicate things, the 16th and 17th centuries saw many wars between Denmark-Norway and Sweden. Whenever war trade became complicated, the cities were closed off. Neutral German merchants could still continue business as usual.

    Eventually, though, the Kontor did come to an end. On the 10th of August 1630, one of the German firm owners deserted the Kontor and registered himself as a Bergen merchant. Bryggen was no longer 100% German.

    By 1702, there were 19 Norwegian firms compared to 34 German firms, and in 1754 the German Kontor was disbanded and a new trading organisation was formed – the Norwegian Kontor. In 1766, the very last German firm passed into Norwegian hands.

    But it wasn’t the end of the German presence in Bergen. Trade with the Northern fishermen remained, and business was still conducted in the German language. The Norwegian merchants were even offered free German classes so they could understand their accounts and attend St. Mary’s Church. While Bryggen became more Norwegian throughout the 1800s, the German presence remained until the Norwegian Kontor closed its doors in 1899. But you can still see the German presence today – the street name is Tyskebryggen (The German Wharf).

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    Today, the buildings at Bryggen form the only Hanseatic Kontor remaining in Europe. Despite the fact that the Germans were often controlling, brutal, demanding, and isolated themselves, there’s no denying that the Germans provided Norwegians with access to food and good they would otherwise struggle to get. So, to counter King Sverre’s opinion that the German trade brought much evil and nothing good, it’s clear to see that the Hanseatic trade was an overall positive part of Norwegian history.

    Further Reading

    Read about the Hanseatic League throughout Europe on the fantastic website http://www.hanse.org.

    Wikipedia has a great overview of the Hanseatic League here.

    History of the Hanseatic League in Bergen on http://www.forbes.com