History

  • History, Svalbard

    The History of Longyearbyen

    The History of Longyearbyen

    If you’re going to Svalbard, you will be going to Longyearbyen. The only settlement open to the public to stay at, Longyearbyen is the hub of Svalbard and starting point for all the expeditions and day trips around the archipelago. 

    While today Longyearbyen as a vibrant, modern and lively town centre, this is all very recent. For the first several decades of the towns existence, Longyearbyen was a harsh and inhospitable place cut off from the rest of Norway. However, people chose to come here because of the mining activity that has been taking place here since the towns inception.

    Before you to go Longyearbyen, be sure to understand a little of the settlements history. Here is my History of Longyearbyen. 

    In this article...

    Svalbard Travel Guide

    Be sure to read my detailed travel guide for Svalbard, including all the settlements and itineraries for different times of the year. 

    Early years of Longyearbyen

    Longyearbyen, nestled in the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard, boasts a captivating history woven with exploration, mining, and Arctic survival. While it was a place where there were hunters and explorers from the 17th century onwards, many consider Longyearbyen’s beginnings to be mining, but that’s not totally true. In fact, the first reason for people coming to Longyearbyen was tourism. In 1896, Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab (later Hurtigruten) started tours to Hotelneset, the name of the peninsula where the airport is today. A prefabricated hotel was built and two families lived on the property all year round. A post office operated by the Norwegian Postal Service was even established here. However, this wasn’t a successful business because of the cost of maintaining the property.

    John Longyear & the Discovery of Mining

    The American industrialist John Munro Longyear visited Spitsbergen in 1901 as a tourist and met an expedition prospecting for coal. Two years later he came back and got more information on the coal fields. Longyear bought the Norwegian claims on the west side of the Adventfjord, and in 1906 started the Arctic Coal Company. Mine 1a was the first mine to operate at Longyearbyen. The company had American administration but mostly Norwegian labourers and they built accommodation and docks for the workers. The name of the settlement – Longyear City. The aerial tramway that is still visible on the mountainside was used to transport the coal from the mine to the port. Mine 2a opened in 1913.

    Longyearbyen in 1908

    The American-owned company did not last too long. Financial difficulties during World War I led to the mining operations being bought by the Norwegian company Store Norske, which was incorporated in Oslo in 1916. Store Norske built five new barracks and a hospital. Store Norske owned a great deal of the town. Store Norske even had their own money (with approval from Norges Bank), consisting entirely of banknotes at par with the Norwegian krone.

    Mine 1 closed in 1920 after 26 men were killed in a coal dust explosion. Remains of the mine are still visible on the mountainside.

    Establishing Longyearbyen as a Town

    As mentioned above, a hospital and even money were brought to Longyearbyen in the 1910s. In 1920, the Church of Norway appointed Svalbard’s first vicar and teacher – Thorleif Østenstad. A school was established jointly by the church and Store Norske. At first, there were 8 students here. The first church in Svalbard opened in 1921, though was eventually destroyed during World War II.

    Because Store Norske now owned mining activities, the town was renamed Longyearbyen in 1926.

    Tourism began in 1935, when SS Lyngen started calling regularly during the summer season. In 1938, Longyearbyen’s first road was completed and linked the town with Sverdrupbyen further down the valley.

    World War II

    During World War II, Longyearbyen gained strategic significance due to its coal resources and suffered bombings by German forces in 1943. Initially Longyearbyen was unaffected by the war, but soon it became clear that Svalbard was of strategic important. On 3 September 1941 the population (765 people) were evacuated from Longyearbyen to Scotland. A small Nazi garrison and air strip was established in Adventdalen, mostly to provide meterological data. After the British Operation Ftirham regained control of Barentsburg, the Nazis left Longyearbyen without combat.

    Ruins from World War II in Longyearbyen

    In September 1943, the Kriegsmarine dispatched two battleships, Tirpitz and Scharnhorst, and nine destroyers to bombard Longyearbyen, Barentsburg and Grumant. Only four buildings in Longyearbyen survived – the hospital, power station, office building and a residential building. The first ship leaving the mainland to repopulate Longyearbyen left on 27 June 1945.

    Immediate Post-War Development

    Post-war, the Norwegian government took control of mining operations, leading to further development and stability. By 1948, coal production had reached the pre-war level. The neighbourhood of Nybyen was established in 1946 and consisted of five barracks, each housing 72 people.

    The first issue of the Svalbardposten newspaper was published in November 1948. A year later, Longyearbyen got a telephone connection to the mainland. The cemetery that had been established in the 1920s closed in 1950 because the bodies were not decomposing due to the permafrost and keeping them risked disease. Since then, bodies have been sent to the mainland for burial. The community centre Huset opened in 1951.

    'Normalising' Longyearbyen

    In the 1960s, the town began its modernisation process. The first snowmobile was brought here in 1961, and by 1969 there were 140 registered snowmobiles against 33 registered cars. Television broadcasting equipment was installed in 1969, with the schedule of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation being aired with a two-week delay. Television became live in 1984.

    In 1971, a new school building opened along with a gymnasium and swimming pool. In 1978, an upper secondary program was introduced at the public school.

    The Svalbard Council was established on the 1st of November 1971 and it consisted of three different groups: Store Norske employees, government employees and others.

    The airport opened in 1975 and initially provided four weekly services to mainland Norway and semi-weekly services to Russia.

    Do you remember the Store Norske money that was introduced back in the early days? That was taken out of circulation in 1980 and the Norwegian kroner has been used since then.

    Svalbard Samfunnsdrift, a company responsible for public infrastructure and services, was established by Store Norske in 1989. They are responsible for healthcare, the fire brigade, the kindergarten, roads, rubbish disposal, power production, the water and sewer system, cinema, cultural activities, and the library. Ownership was taken over by the Ministry of Trade and Industry in 1993.

    Modernisation of Mining

    Mines continued to open around Longyearbyen in the 1970s. Mine 3 opened in March 1971, and Mine 7 opened in 1972. In 1973, the Ministry of Trade and Industry bought a third of Store Norske – eventually it owned 99.94% of the company.

    From 1982, Store Norske permitted private individuals to own and operate cars, and by 1990 there were 353 registered cars and 883 snowmobiles. Store Norske moved their headquarters from Bergen to Longyearbyen in 1983.

    Modern Times

    Over time, Longyearbyen modernised, improving infrastructure and amenities for its residents. This process has been called ‘normalisation’ and included introducing a full range of services, a varied economy, and a local democracy.

    Yet, economic challenges emerged in the latter half of the 20th century as coal prices declined, prompting a shift towards diversification. Mining is planning on closing in Longyearbyen altogether. The first major hotel opened in 1995 (now the Radisson Blu), the Longyearbyen Community Council was established in 2002, and the University Centre in Svalbard opened on 6 September 1993 and had 30 students. Telenor mobile was introduced in 1995, and in 2004 the Svalbard Undersea Cable System opened, providing fiber-optic cable connection to the mainland. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault opened in 2008.

    Today, Longyearbyen’s economy revolves around tourism, research, and education. As a base for scientific expeditions, Longyearbyen hosts research institutions studying climate change, wildlife, and geology. However, it also faces unique challenges, such as extreme Arctic conditions and the impacts of climate change. Despite these obstacles, the town has adapted, implementing measures to ensure safety and sustainability.

    Longyearbyen’s cultural heritage is preserved through museums, historic sites, and local traditions, celebrating its diverse influences from Norwegian, Russian, and American backgrounds. Ultimately, Longyearbyen’s history embodies human resilience and exploration in one of the world’s most unforgiving environments.

    Svalbard Travel Guide

    Be sure to read my detailed travel guide for Svalbard, including all the settlements and itineraries for different times of the year. 

  • History, Norway, Svalbard

    The History of Svalbard (Summarised)

    The History of Svalbard

    Svalbard, an archipelago located in the Arctic Ocean, holds a history as vast and rugged as its icy landscapes. While the first people to visit Svalbard is disputed, there’s no denying that the island was of great importance for European hunting and trade in the 17th and 18th centuries. While the basis for interest in the archipelago was the exploration of its natural resources, today the interest in Svalbard is largely scientific.

    When travelling to Svalbard, you’ll of course be doing many excursions to see the incredible nature. However, it’s good to understand how Svalbard came to be what it is today. I’ve written this short historic overview of Svalbard with additional information on how to visit these places today, and hopefully this will make your trip to Svalbard even better!

    Here is my History of Svalbard. 

    In this article...

    Svalbard Travel Guide

    Be sure to read my detailed travel guide for Svalbard, including all the settlements and itineraries for different times of the year. 

    When did the first peoples reach Svalbard?

    It’s not known exactly when the first peoples were on Svalbard. Some explorers have claimed that they have found Stone Age tools on Svalbard from around 3,000BC, but there is little support of these claims. However, during the 19th century Norwegian historians proposed that Norse seamen founded Svalbard in 1194, and this is based on documents stating that “Svalbarði” is four days sailing from Iceland. This is where the name ‘Svalbard’ comes from. However, there is no further written sources about the Norse exploration to Svalbard. Russian historians have proposed that the Pomors (North Russian traders) may have visited the island in the 15th century.

    The first undisputed discovery of Svalbard was an expedition led by the Dutch cartographer and navigator Willem Barentsz (the Barents Sea is named after him), who was searching for the Northeast Passage to China. He spotted Bear Island (just south of the main island Spitsbergen) on 10 June 1596 and then saw the north-western tip of Spitsbergen on the 17th of June. His documents did not mention Svalbard’s natural resources, such as oil and fur – what the region would soon become famous for.

    The First Peoples of Svalbard & Early Whaling

    Svalbard’s natural resources were not ‘discovered’ until 1607, when the English navigator Henry Hudson found whales, walruses, and seals in the water around Spitsbergen. This gave rise to a claim of Spitsbergen in 1614 by the Muscovy Company on behalf of King James I of England.

    The Dutch started whaling activities in the Arctic around the year 1612, and they established the first settlement on Svalbard – Smeerenburg – in 1619. It is possible to visit Smeerenburg only on cruises that visit the north-west coast of the island. The Dutch ended up dominating the whaling industry with the help of experienced Basque harpooners, who boiled whale blubber in large copper pots. By the late 17th century, there were between 200 and 300 ships and up to 10,000 whalers around Spitsbergen. The first group overwintered (accidentally) in 1630. The first planned overwintering was by the Dutch at Smeerenburg in 1633. Smeerenburg was abandoned in 1750.

    Cornelis de Man's 1639 painting of whaling at Smeerenburg
    remains of smeerenburg history of svalbard
    Smeerenburg today

    Eventually the interest in other resource arose, with the goods being taken back to Europe to be sold. The Pomors (Russian traders) were the ones who started hunting animals for fur. They hunted polar bears, foxes, seals, and walruses. They built many hunting stations around Svalbard, and many of these stations, complete with Russian Orthodox crosses, have been excavated. The Pomors would also overwinter on Svalbard. The large Pomor settlement at Russekeila became known for its famous inhabitant, Ivan Starostin, who spent 39 winters on Svalbard. Cape Starashchin is named after him.

    Who owns Svalbard? Political Conflicts over the Archipelago

    The European whalers let to an international political conflict. Who owned Svalbard? Who had a right to kick others out? The Dutch rejected that the English had exclusive rights, and King Christian IV of Denmark-Norway claimed that he had the rights to all of the Northern Sea as Greenland was an old Norwegian tax-land. England offered to purchased the rights from Denmark-Norway, but the offer was turned down and then England went back to claiming exclusive rights. In 1615, Denmark-Norway sent men to collect tax from English and Dutch whalers, but they refused to pay. This ended in political deadlock.

    As mentioned above, the Russian Pomor traders came in the late 17th century and established their own settlements. In the 1790s, there were 2,200 Russian hunters in Svalbard. However, the Pomors found it difficult to compete with the Norwegians who reached the hunting grounds earlier and eventually took over. The Norwegians began overwintering in Svalbard in 1795.

    Seal hunting was started by the Germans in the late 17th century and was taken over by Norwegians and the Danes in the 18th century. Seal hunting wasn’t as profitable, though.

    Norwegians reached Svalbard in the 18th century, and the first Norwegian citizens to reach the island of Spitsbergen were a number of Sami people from Hammerfest, who were hired as part of a Russian crew for an expedition in 1795. From the 1820s Norwegian hunting expeditions grew and Tromsø became the main port from which the expeditions began. Elling Carlsen was a well-known seal hunter and explorer, and circumnavigated the whole archipelago in 1861.

    Exploration in the 19th Century

    While the interest in Svalbard was certainly associated with hunting, there was also an interest in studying Svalbard. Exploration on the archipelago began in the early 17th century by the whaling companies. In 1650, it was established that Spitsbergen was an island not connected to Greenland. However, it was only really the coast that was studied at first.

    The first scientific expedition to Svalbard was the Russian Čičagov Expedition between 1764 and 1766, which passed Svalbard in an unsuccessful attempt to find the North Sea Route. The second expedition was organised by the Royal Navy and led by Constantine Phipps in 1773. They collected zoological and botanical samples and measured water temperatures.

    Scientific exploration increased throughout the 18th century, with the most extensive surveys being carried out by William Scoresby, who published several papers on the Arctic. Baltazar Mathias Keilhau (a Norwegian) was the first to carry out expeditions on the interior of Svalbard. Swedish exploration started with Sven Loven in 1837, which led way to Sweden dominating scientific investigations in the last half of the century. Martin Conway (United Kingdom) was the first to produce a map of the interior of Svalbard.

    Airship Norge in Ny-Ålesund 1926

    Svalbard was used as the starting point for expeditions to the North Pole. Ny-Ålesund (the second main settlement of Svalbard, only accessible on guided tour) was the basis of four attempts to the North Pole between 1925 and 1928, including Roald Amundsen’s first attempt with a flying boat. Amundsen’s airship Norge is credited as the first to reach the pole. Umberto Nobile’s airship Italia crashed in 1928, resulting in the largest search in polar history.

    Industrialisation of Svalbard

    While hunting was important for the growth of interest in Svalbard, the next phase of Svalbard’s money-making history was the industrialisation of the archipelago following the discovery of coal. No rules governed who could claim land, and between 1898 and 1920 over 100 land claims were made.

    The first attempt to create a permanent settlement on Svalbard was carried out by Sweden’s Alfred Gabriel Nathorst, who established Kapp Thordsen in 1872 with the goal of mining phosphorite, but it was never carried out. The Swedes set themselves up to mine at Svea, while the Russians began mining at Barentsburg and Pyramiden. The two British companies were the Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate and the Northern Exploration Company.

    Industrial mining of coal began in 1899 (the whalers and hunters had been using the coal long before then), but the first commercially viable mining company was the American John Munroe Longyear’s Arctic Coal Company, which established the town Longyear City (in 1925 it was renamed Longyearbyen). By 1910, 200 men worked for the company and by 1912 the company was extracting 40,000 tons of coal a year. The town and the mines were bought by the Norwegian-owned Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani in 1916.

    Longyearbyen in 1908

    The first school in Longyearbyen was built in 1920 by the Church of Norway. Svalbard Radio started broadcasting in 1911, and an early version of a hotel was completed in 1896.

    Swedish interests established mines at Pyramiden (no longer accessible due to the war in Urkraine) and Sveagruva (recently abandoned and torn down), which Dutch investors established Barentsburg (not accessible due to the war in Ukraine). Norwegians established coal mining in Ny-Ålesund in 1916.

    Norway Claims Svalbard (The Svalbard Treaty)

    During all this time, Svalbard was a terra nullius (land without government). The work to establish an administration was established in 1871. Fridtjof Nansen’s endeavours raised the Norwegian public’s consciousness of the Arctic, which again brought forth public support for the annexation of Svalbard.

    The Government of Norway took initative in 1907 for negotiations between the involved states mining in Svalbard. Conferences were held in 1910, 1912 and 1914. The break through came at the Paris Peace Conference – Germany and Russia had both been excluded, while Norway enjoyed much goodwill after their neutral ally policy and was seen as a harmless country.

    The Svalbard Treaty of 9 February 1920 granted Norway full sovereignty over Svalbard, although with two major limitations: all parties to the treaty had equal rights to economic resources and Svalbard was not to be used for “warlike purposes”. That is why there’s no military on Svalbard, and why Russia owns Barentsburg and Pyramiden.

    Svalbard was to be administered by the Governor of Svalbard. It is regarded as “part of the Kingdom of Norway” but is not a county. A mining code was passed in 1925 and by 1927 all mining claims were resolved. All unclaimed land was taken over by the Norwegian government. Although the Soviet Union was sceptical to the treaty, they were willing to trade a signing of it in exchange for a Norwegian recognition of the Soviet regime.

    By the 1930s, only the Norwegians and Russians were mining on Svalbard.

    World War II

    Ruins from World War II in Longyearbyen

    Svalbard was initially unaffected by the Nazi occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany on 9 April 1940. However, following the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union, Svalbard became of strategic importance to secure supplies between the allies. All Norwegian and Soviet settlements were evacuated, and Nazis occupied Longyearbyen, where they built an airstrip and a weather station. Svalbard is one of the best weather prediction places for the sea and temperatures in Northern Norway, so it was of strategic importance for them. In May 1942, a Norwegian expedition was sent to liberate the island and they were attacked by the Nazis. Eventually the Nazis left Svalbard, but destroyed Barentsburg, Grumand and Longyearbyen in the process. The towns were rebuilt after the war, and in Longyearbyen it’s possible to see the remains of the town before the war.

    Cold War & the Kings Bay Affair

    Pyramiden, a now abandoned Soviet mining town

    In 1944, the Soviet Union proposed that Svalbard become a condominium under joint Norwegian and Soviet rule. The proposal was discussed in Norway but ultimately rejected.

    Political tension between Norway and the Soviet Union became heated after Norway joined NATO in 1949. The Soviet Union issued memorandums to Norway stating that Svalbard could not be under NATO command, but this was rejcted by Norway.

    21 miners were killed in an accident in Ny-Ålesund, which led to the King’s Bay Affair. Basically, the Kings Bay Mining Company was a coal mining operation based in Ny-Ålesund that was owned by the government. After the miners were killed in an accident, the Norwegian government established an investigatory commission that ended up finding deficiencies in the management of the mine, especially culpability on part of the minister of industry at the time, Kjell Holler. The non-socialist opposition to the Labour Party government demanded that Holler be dismissed, but Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen claimed that the Kings Bay operations were not accountable to the parliament. Gerhardsen was forced to appear before parliament and answer for his cabinet’s actions. The opposition found unity in proposing a vote of no-confidence to the parliament, claiming that a government that owns a corporation that is mismanaged should be held accountable. This led to the Gerhardsen cabinet resigning.

    Oil drilling was started by Caltex in 1961. They were granted claims based on indications, rather than samples, of oil, which was a privilege not given to the Soviets, leading to strained relations. No commercially viable wells were found.

    Both the Kings Kay Affair and the Caltex Affair initiated public debate about the administration of Svalbard, and in particular the lack of resources and control of Soviet settlments. The Governor of Svalbard increased its activities in Soviet settlements.

    After mining ended in Ny-Ålesund, the Norwegian Polar Institute took a dominant role in converting it to an international research station.

    In 1973, more than half of the archipelago was protected through four national parks, fourteen bird sanctuaries and four nature reserved.

    'Normalisation' & Modern Times

    “Normalisation” was a term coined in the 1970s to transform Longyearbyen from a company town to a regular community. In 1971, the Svalbard Council was established for the Norwegian population.

    The civilian airport at Longyearbyen was built in 1975 and was built to serve both the Norwegian and Soviet towns.

    The 1990s saw a large reduction in Russian activity. Schools were closed in 1994 and children and mothers were sent to the mainland, reducing the population of Barentsburg to 800 and Pyramiden to 600. Pyramiden was abandoned in 1998. From 1990 to 2011, the Russian and Ukrainian population fell from 2,300 to 370, while the Norwegian population increased from 1,100 to 2,000.

    Tourism has emerged as a major livelihood for Svalbard with hotels being built on Spitsbergen from 1995.

    Research and education is also of crucial importance to Svalbard in modern times. Since the 1990s, several high-tech institutes and research centres have established themselves, including the University Centre in Svalbard, the European Incoherent Scatter Scientific Association, the Svalbard Satellite Station, the Svalbard Undersea Cable System, and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.

    In 2002, the Longyearbyen Community Council was incorporated with many of the same responsibilities as a municipality.

    Today tourism is important to Svalbard and the largest industry on the archipelago, though research still plays an important role for the basis of settlement there. 

    Further Reading

    For a more detailed overview of Svalbard’s history, I recommend reading this document from VisitSvalbard (click here). 

    Svalbard Travel Guide

    Be sure to read my detailed travel guide for Svalbard, including all the settlements and itineraries for different times of the year. 

  • Hammerfest, History, Tromsø, Vardø

    A Brief History of the Pomor Trade

    A Brief History of the Pomor Trade

    When you visit Northern Norway, chances are you’ll come across something called the Pomor Trade. When I first started visiting Finnmark, I would typically disregard any mention of the Pomors as a small part of history here that had little importance. However, after visiting Vardø back in September 2023, I came to realise just how vital the Pomors had been to the development of Northern Norway.

    I’ve put together this article as a short historic overview of the Pomors. Perhaps it’ll benefit your own trip to Northern Norway!

    Pomor Museum in Vardø
    Pomor buildings in Vardø
    VARDØ Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide

    What is a Pomor?

    This took me way too long to figure out. A “Pomor” is actually an ethnographic group that come from Russian settlers from around the region of Novgorod. They came to the White Sea region hundreds of years ago, following the various river systems through Russia. The word ‘Pomor’ derives from the word ‘Pomorsky’ (which means ‘maritime’) and is a word used to describe the coast of the White Sea. 

    Historic Trade Between Russia and Norway & Development of the Pomor Trade

    The people of Norway and Russia have been trading for hundreds of years. In fact, it can be traced back to the Viking Age. The Russians were known to also trade with the Sami people. 

    Trade between Russians and the Norwegians began to come into its modern form when the trade monopoly in Bergen was legalised. Basically, the King said that all foreign merchants had to go to Bergen, and all fishermen had to sell their catch in Bergen. 

    However, for the fishermen this was tough. In the colder months it was no problem as the fish could stay preserved for the long journey, but for a few weeks over the summer the temperatures were too warm and the fish risked going bad.

    The Pomors found a way to exploit this – they could buy the fish directly from the fishermen (back then it was common to go through a middleman, which also drove up prices). It benefitted the fishermen, too – they could sell direct, the fish wouldn’t go bad, and they were able to get supplies from the Pomors without having to all the way to Bergen. Was it a little illegal? Sure. But back then Northern Norway didn’t have much law enforcement, so they were able to get away with it. 

    The beginning of the Pomor Trade and important trade connections

    The beginning of the Pomor Trade is generally regarded to be in the early 18th century, simply because trade began to become more organised. 

    At first, the trade was a barter trade between people in the area, who traded grain products from Russia with fish products from Norway. However, money began to be used in the early 18th century, and in some places in Northern Norway the ruble was used as a currency. Trading with the Pomors also originally had no taxes or customs fees. 

    The trade always involved the Pomors coming to Norway; the Norwegians rarely travelled to Russia. The Pomors would bring wheats and grains, but starting in the 18th century they began bringing rye flour, which was important for the Norwegians and another reason the Pomor trade officially began around that time. The grain was grown inland around the Volga River and then transported along the White Sea. 

    The trade of grain was vital for the Norwegians as it doesn’t grow along the coast. Also, in Norway in the 18th century there were several crop failures and the price of rye in Bergen increased fivefold. For the fishermen, having the Pomors come directly to them and selling the grains and flour at good prices was essential for survival. 

    In addition to rye and wheat flour, the Pomors carried other food, such as oatmeal, salt, peas, meat and dairy products. Other useful merchandise was also carried, such as iron, timber, tar, birch bark, candles, cooking pots, hemp, rope and canvas. They also brought luxury products, such as candy, soap, porcelain and wood carvings.

    From the Norwegians they would take fish of various sorts, mainly Atlantic cod and dry saithe, but also Atlantic halibut and haddock.

    Where did they trade?

    The main centre of the Pomor Trade in Norway was Vardø, which is located close to the Russian border. The harbour in Vardø could at times have over 100 Russian vessels moored simultaneously, and the town had a Russian consulate. 

    Other towns that were important for the Pomors include Hamningberg (a now abandoned fishing village) and Hammerfest, though the Pomors did trade in other places like Vadsø and Kjøllefjord. Tromsø gained trading privileges a few years later and was given the monopoly for trading with the Pomors in the region of Troms. Eventually the Pomors were trading as far south as the Lofoten Islands. 

    In Russia, the city of Arkangelsk was the centre of Pomor Trade, and it was founded in 1584 as a trade centre for the White Sea. 

    Arkangelsk 1896

    Attempts at Regulation

    As the Pomor Trade grew somewhat illegally, when Norwegian sovereignty was enforced over Northern Norway, there began to be attempts to control the Pomor Trade. 

    Already back in 1316 the King of the time, King Håkon V, prevented foreigners from trading in Northern Norway. All foreign ships had to stop in Bergen. 

    Until the Reformation in 1537, the trade between the North and the Hanseatic League in Bergen was controlled by the archbishop in Trondheim. After the Reformation, the privileges of trade were handed from the church to the citizens of Bergen and Trondheim, giving them a monopoly. 

    There are reports of Russians trading illegally from the 17th century onwards. If the Russians and Norwegians were caught trading outside of Bergen, the Norwegians would be denied winter supplies from Norwegian traders. This lasted until 1715. 

    In the late 18th century, trade was placed under control of the King and trading houses of Copenhagen. In 1783 the government in Copenhagen decided that the Pomor Trade should be somewhat legalised, and that North Norwegians should get their grain from the Russians rather than Denmark. The Danish King Christian VII gave Vardø, Hammerfest and Tromsø status of trading towns in order to regulate the Pomor trade better. 

    However, there was one thing in the way. The fact that the Pomors could trade freely with the fishermen was bad for the government, who were missing out on their precious taxes. So, it was made illegal. Eventually it was made legal again, but the Pomors could only trade directly with fishermen in the short weeks where the warm climate makes it difficult to preserve fish. 

    Napoleonic Wars

    The Pomor Trade was targeted by the British during the Napoleonic Wars. During the Gunboat War, the United Kingdom put a trade embargo on Denmark-Norway. This made the Pomor Trade almost essential for survival for the North Norwegians, and they got a special decree legalising direct trade between the Pomors and fishermen in 1809. 

    During the Anglo-Russian War, the British government established a blockade along the Norwegian coast. One of their goals was to stop the Pomor Trade and cut off supply lines of goods from Arkangelsk. The Norwegians responded by fortifying the important harbours, such as Hammerfest. In 1810, the Norwegians established a special naval squadron called “The Finnmark Squadron” to protect the Pomor Trade.

    However, despite all this the British did manage to bomb and heavily damage Hammerfest. 

    The Golden Age and Rapid End

    Throughout the 19th century the conditions in Norway began to improve and the dependence on grain from Russia began to decline. Eventually the trade privileges and rules were lifted in 1870, and the Pomors were more or less free to come as they please. These lighter regulations led to the Pomors modernising their vessels and by 1870, 400 Russian Pomor vessels visited Tromsø. Normally 300 vessels would visit all of Norway in one year. By 1900, Russia was Norway’s fourth most important trade partner, and rye flour remained the most important commodity. After 1910, less flour was traded, and the Russians paid for the fish with money instead. 

    Things sounded like they were going well, but everything ended abruptly in 1917, when the Russian Revolution ended all trade. This had understandable negative effects on the economy of Northern Norway, especially for the coastal communities as the fishermen no longer had the possibility to see their summer catch. Some Russian vessels still did come. The last vessel came in 1929, when Joseph Stalin’s collectivization came into full effect, ending private property rights and persecuting merchants. 

    Lasting impact of the Pomors

    It’s important to not understate the lasting effect the Pomor Trade had on the coastal communities in Northern Norway. Many of the villages along the Finnmark coast developed in the 19th century thanks to the Pomor Trade, and were able to afford luxuries they otherwise wouldn’t get. It also led to a good relationship between the two countries, and in 1875 there was even a regular steamship service between Arkangelsk and Vardø. This allowed for Russian tourism and seasonal workers in Finnmark. 

    Often the same Pomor vessels would visit the same place year after year, and the Norwegians got to know the crew. The Russians and the trade with them had high esteem in Northern Norway and they were known for being friendly. The people of Northern Norway also got an insight into a difficult culture and it in turn affected Norwegian culture. 

    Lastly, and also perhaps most interesting, a pidgin language developed between the Pomors and the North Norwegians called Russenorsk. Russenorsk has a restricted grammar mostly related to Arctic fishing and trading. You can find some examples of Russenorsk on Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russenorsk

    Where to go from here

    If you want to learn more about the Pomor Trade, visit the city of Vardø, which is home to the Pomor Museum. The city also has wooden warehouses still standing from the Pomor time. You can read about Vardø on our travel guide page. 

    VARDØ Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide

    Please leave any questions or comments below!

  • History, Vardø

    The Witchcraft Trials of Vardø

    The Witchcraft Trials of Vardø

    The Vardø witch trials are regarded as some of the most brutal, intense and dramatic witch trials in Scandinavian history. It’s hard to believe a small community in the far north of Norway would see many people accused and convicted of witchcraft. In total, 150 people were executed for sorcery in Northern Norway between 1621 and 1663, before legal security and administration became better organised in 1666 (a fitting date, really). It is said that at times there were no families in Finnmark who were not affected by the witchcraft trials, either as prosecutors, witnesses, or convicts.

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    Vardø Travel Guide

    You can find more information about visiting the town of Vardø on our dedicated travel guide page. 

    Vardø Travel Guide

    Perceptions of Witchcraft in Northern Europe

    The new law of sorcery and witchcraft for the union of Denmark and Norway was issued and announced in Finnmark in 1620.

    At the time, Northern Norway was a place with lacking centralised law enforcement, so the local authorities had a great deal of power. These officials were typically not Norwegian but often men from Scotland, Germany and Denmark, countries with a history of witch trials. They brought their ideas of witchcraft and sorcery to the north, and it greatly influenced life in the Arctic. In Europe, religious experts often claimed that “the evil came from the North”, the home of the Sami people. Since the Sami people were not Christian and followed a shamanistic religion, they were also often considered to be practicing witchcraft.

    The officials believed they had been placed there to correct the population according to the Protestant religion. They painted the Sami as magicians and disapproved of Norwegian women along the coast being home for months when their husbands were out fishing, suspecting them of committing adultery with demons.

    Additionally, the Dutch and other European merchants would sail between Vardøhus and Russia to trade and warned their countrymen of the dangers of Satan, and it was believed the haunts and devils flew through the wicked winds of the north. Witches could conjure up mighty whirlwinds, poor weather, fog, thunder and lightning.

    The ordeal of water is how many women would be tested if they were a witch. Basically, they would be tied up and thrown into water. If they sank, they were innocent and died. If they floated, they were a witch and were then burned at the stake.

    The Three Waves of Witchcraft Trials in Vardø

    There were three major phases of the Vardø witch trials: 1621, 1651 and 1663. Let’s break down each one and try to understand the historic significance of the witchcraft trials.

    The Witch Trials of 1621

    The witch trials of 1621 begins with a big storm in 1617 that sunk ten boats and killed forty men. The storm was completely out of nowhere and took the men by surprise. It clearly had an effect on the town.

    Kiberg

    The trial took place at Vardøhus Fortress in 1621. Mari Jørgensdatter, a woman from Kiberg, was interrogated under torture. She confessed that Satan had come to her in Christmas 1620 and asked her to follow him to her neighbour, Kirsti Sørensdatter. He asked if she would serve him, and she said yes. They went to Kristi and together the women flew to the mountain Lyderhorn in Bergen, over 1,600km away, to attend the Sabbath with the devil. On top of Lyderhorn they went to Satan’s Christmas Party with dance and drink, and then flew back to Finnmark, though Kirsti decided to take the long way home by sea. Lyderhorn is mentioned in many witchcraft trials as a place where the women would meet with the devil.

    Vardohus Fortress, where many of the witchcraft trials took place.

    Mari confessed that the witches had caused the great storm, and that they had sexual intercourse with devils while the men were at sea. Another woman being interrogated, Else Knutsdatter, confirmed that the witches had tied a fishing rope three times, spat at it and untied it, after which “the sea rose like ashes and people were killed”. Else was seen in the company of demons and was exposed to the ordeal of water.

    Kirsti Sørensdatter was confirmed by many of the women to be the leader. She was arrested when she arrived back from Bergen via ship. Kirsti was married to a wealthy merchant Anders Johanssen from Helsingør in Denmark, where it was said she learned sorcery from an old woman. Under torture, she confirmed everything. Kirsti was sentence to be burned alive at the stake on 28 April 1621.

    That was the end of the first wave of witchcraft trials.

    The Witch Trials of 1651

    This phase in witchcraft resulted in the death of 17 women by burning. It centred around women having caused – or attempted – to have caused ship wrecks by use of witchcraft.

    The Witch Trials of 1662-63

    The final phase of witchcraft trials is considered to be one of the biggest in Scandinavia. Thirty women were put on trial, accused of sorcery and making pacts with the devil. One was sentenced to a work house, two tortured to death, and eighteen were burned alive at the stake. The trial centred around the belief that the women had been partying with the Devil. To be honest, the parties with the Devil actually sound quite nice. But that’s not the point. The parties took place on a mountain called Domen, which overlooks the town of Vardø.

    The mountain Domen, seen from Vardø, where women supposedly met with the devil.

    It started with Dorthe Lauritzdatter was brought in to Vardøhus Fortress for questioning. Local man Lauritz Braas claimed that two of his servants, who had recently died, claimed to have been bewitched by her. Four witches led by Dorthe in the shape of a dove, eagle, crow and swan were to have opened their “wind-knots” over the sea to make a boat sink, but the plot failed because the crew prayed to God. Dorthe was burned at the stake.

    The next was Ingeborg Iversdatter, who confessed during an interrogation on 26 January 1663 that she and Sølve Nilsdatter had celebrated Christmas on Kiberg. They had transformed themselves into cats and crawled under a gate to meet Maren Olsdatter and Sirgi Klockare, who were incarcerated for witchcraft. They broke into a basement and drank lots of wine while Satan held a candle for them. Sølve had drunk so much that Satan had a hard time getting her on her feet and back to jail. The priest of the fortress pointed out that this must have been the reason why alcohol disappeared from the basement. Sølve later confessed to the giant witches sabbath that had taken place on the Dovrefjell mountains in southern Norway, where witches had arrived in the shapes of dogs and cats to drink and dance with Satan.

    Maren has a sad story. When she was twelve, her mother was executed for sorcery. She had been taken care by her aunt for several years before her aunt was also burned. Maren was interrogated and she claimed to have visited Hell, where she was given a tour by Satan. She later visited a sabbath on Domen, where Satan played dancing music on a red violin and gave the witches beer before following each of them home personally. The court asked her who she had seen there, and she gave the names of five women. All the women Maren mentioned were burned to death in Vardø on 20 March 1663.

    The last accused witches were brought in on 25 June 1663. Maren told the court that she had been forced to lie against other people, denouncing them for witch craft. She said that the now-exiled Anne Rhodius had forced her to do it. The court sentenced Maren for having lied and to stay for some time in the work house in Bergen. However, it is likely she didn’t do that as there is documentation that she lived in Vardø after 1663.

    The End of the Trials

    The trials ended thanks to Mandrup Pedersen Schønnebøl, who was a judge.He saw the madness of burning people alive on the basis of rumours and opposed public opinion by destroying the legal basis for burning accused witches. In 1687, a requirement for judgements in witchcraft cases to be heard at parliament before a death sentence could be carried out became law. Norway’s last known witch execution took place in 1695.

    Steilneset Memorial

    In Vardø you can visit Steilneset Memorial, which opened in 2011 to commemorate the victims of the witchcraft trials. The memorial was jointly commissioned by the town of Vardø, Finnmark County, the Varanger Museum and the Norwegian Public Roads Administration as part of the development of the National Tourist Routes in Norway. The memorial was designed by French-American artist Louise Bourgeois and Swiss architect Peter Zumthor. The long timber walkway has 91 randomly placed windows representing those executed, each one accompanied by a text explaining each person. The second building has a metal chair with perpetual flames projecting through its seat.

    The attraction is open 24-7 and is free. When you step inside, be sure to look by the door. They have booklets with English translations of all the womens testimonies.

    Recommended Reading

    The witchcraft trials of Vardø are the basis for a book called The Mercies by Kiran Millwood Hargrave. It tells the story of the trials in Vardø through the eyes of Ursa, the new wife of a Scottish witch hunter, who leaves her Bergen childhood home for the wilds of Finnmark.

    You can see the book on Amazon here: https://www.amazon.com/Mercies-Kiran-Millwood-Hargrave/dp/0316529257

    Vardø Travel Guide

    You can find more information about visiting the town of Vardø on our dedicated travel guide page. 

    Vardø Travel Guide
  • History, Oslo, Walking Guides

    Oslo’s Historic City Centre: The Ruins of Gamle Oslo

    Walking around Gamle Oslo

    One of my favourite places to walk in Oslo is around the neighbourhood of Gamle Oslo. Located between the modern ‘Barcode’ district and the scenic Ekeberg Sculpture Park, Gamle Oslo is a mixed bag of a neighbourhood. It has scattered apartment buildings, small shops and cafes, is close to the multicultural Grønland neighbourhood (see my separate walk on that here) and is currently a bit of a construction site thanks to the railway and tram lines going through it.

    If you are looking for somewhere a little more ‘off the beaten path’, I can’t recommend Gamle Oslo enough. The ruins are interesting to walk around, and it makes for a nice walk away from the hustle and bustle of the city centre.

    Here’s my guide to the various remains at Gamle Oslo.

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    Oslo Travel Guide

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    • Information about points of interest
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    Oslo's History (A Brief Overview)

    If you are looking for a detailed overview of Oslo’s city history, I would recommend reading my separate article (click here). But, in the context of Gamle Oslo, here is a short overview.

    Basically, Gamle Oslo is the place where the first settlement of Oslo was. According to the Icelandic Sagas, Oslo was founded by King Harald Hardråde around the year 1050 because of the good supplies and close proximity to the big rival, Denmark. However, the settlement has been excavated and remains back to the 9th century have been found. Oslo was likely an urban centre by the end of the Viking Age.

    Oslo was an important port and marketplace. It was also the centre of power and religion for Eastern Norway and stood as a base for a number of Norwegian Kings. Because of this, King Håkon V moved the capital from Bergen to Oslo in 1314, building Akershus Fortress and initiating a number of important construction projects in Oslo town centre, such as the stone cathedrals (they were previously wooden), the new royal court, and the bishop’s residence. Dominican and Franciscan monasteries were constructed in the town.

    Oslo’s decline began around the time of the Black Death and subsequent Kalmar Union. By the time of the Reformation, the city was in disrepair. The Reformation also broke the independence of the Norwegian Church and its position as a factor of economic power, and it strengthened Denmark’s control over Norway. Some buildings in Oslo remained important, such as Akershus Fortress, but the town was less so.

    The end of Oslo’s old town was in 1624, when a large fire swept through the town. It was common for medieval towns to have fire; after all, they were dense wooden settlements and people depended on fire for cooking, heating and lighting. It is believed that Oslo had 18 city fires between 1080 and 1567, and the city was rebuilt just as many times on the same site, where the cellars and foundations remained in tact. The fire of 1624 destroyed most of the residential buildings. The contents of the Hallvard Cathedral were destroyed, though the stone walls remained. Oslo Hospital. Oslo’s Bishop’s Residence and the Oslo Cathedral School all survived the fire.

    The Danish King Christian IV decided that rather than rebuilding the city, it should be moved west closer to Akershus Fortress. Residents were given plots of land for free and the new buildings were to be constructed of stone (they ended up being constructed in wood, leading to more fires). The new city was to be called Christiania, after the King. I have a self-guided walk for Christian IV’s Oslo, which you can read by clicking here.

    What happened to the old town? Not much. Parts of it were converted to agricultural land for farmers, while others sat in ruins for over one hundred years. The interest in the old town only came in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, when the first excavations were carried out. 

    Today much of the area has been heritage-protected and converted into park area, while some of the ruins remain under the modern roads and apartments. There is work now on restoring and preserving more of the ruins, but it’s still an ongoing conversation in Oslo. 

    Defining Gamle Oslo

    Today the ruins are located in the neighbourhood Gamle Oslo and are roughly bound by Hovinbekken in the north, the original course of the Alna River in the south and east, and the waterfront at the Medieval Park in the west. The Franciscan monastery (partly covered by Gamlebyen church and Oslo Hospital) just east of Alna is also considered part of the medieval town.

    Sites Around Gamle Oslo

    The Medieval Park

    Middelalderparken

    The walk begins at the Medieval Park, which is located just across from the Barcode modern construction buildings. The park opened in 2000 after a large excavation project, and the waterfront was recreated to represent where the original waterfront of Oslo would’ve been. 

    Today development in the area is prohibited due to ruins and cultural layers above and below the ground.

    The Alna River had its outlet where the southern side of the park is located today. In connection with the construction of the Follobanen, which opened in December 2022, the river will again be diverted here.

    It is possible to walk along the waterfront. There are two ruins here of particular interest. 

    Mariakirken

    St. Mary's Church

    Like almost all the churches at Gamle Oslo, St. Mary’s Church was probably first built as a small wooden church around the 11th century. Also like the other churches, it was rebuilt as a stone church. 

    St. Mary’s was expanded two more times: in the 13th century with the construction of a Gothic choir and then again int he 14th century with brick extensions. After its final renovation, it was believed to have been one of the most magnificent churches in Norway.

    The church had an important role in the function of Norway’s national government up until the Reformation. The church was the chancellor for the Kingdom of Norway and keeper of the great seal. The chancellor was the only permanent institution in the national government with a seat in Norway and functioned as state administration in medieval Norway. The clergy of St. Mary’s had a high rank in the worldly aristocracy from 1300. 

    Additionally, some of the Norwegian Royals were buried here, such as King Håkon V (who moved the capital to Oslo) and Queen Eufemia. This was also the church where they married. 

    The church was set on fire by the Swedes in connection with an attack in 1523, and by the time of the Reformation the church was so dilapidated that it could not be repaired. It was demolished in 1542 and the land was used for agriculture.

    Excavations of the church were carried out in 1867, 1935 and 1961. 

    Kongsgården

    Royal Residence of Oslo

    Hidden behind the brick building are the remains of the Oslo Royal Residence. Archaeological excavations show that the buildings were constructed around the time of King Harald Hardråde, who founded Oslo. It was likely a wooden building but was converted to a stone one under King Håkon V. 

    Remains of a circular moat have been interpreted as a type of fortification similar to ones found in France and the British Isles. German and English coins dated from between 1040 and 1060 were found in the sandy banks of the moat. 

    Kongsgården was used until the Late Middle Ages but fell into disrepair as Akershus Fortress became the main administrative centre and royal residence. 

    Make your way back up to the main road after this. The rest of the ruins are located within close proximity of Oslo Torg. 

    Saxegården

    Manor House

    Tucked away behind the apartment buildings is a small wooden house. This is Saxegården, a manor house that can be traced back to the medieval times. Beneath half the house is a vaulted stone cellar from the late Middle Ages. The property is one of the few medieval manor houses in Oslo where the location can be determined with 100% certainty. it is named after the Saxe family, a Norwegian noble family. The current wooden building is from around the year 1800. 

    Clemenskirken

    Clements Church

    Clemens Church is likely one of the first churches to be constructed in Oslo as it is believed that Oslo’s first urban structure began around where the church stood. The oldest avenue in Oslo was called Clemensallmenningen. It is believed that the Danish King Harald Bluetooth (yes, that Bluetooth) constructed the church. He was Denmark’s first real King and had Oslo as a base for missionary and military advances in Norway. 

    Several Scandinavian churches were dedicated to the patron saint of seafarers, St. Clemens. The original church was constructed in wood, but was replaced as a stone building around the year 1100.

    The layout of the church is unique: it is one of the very few churches in Norway with a two nave ground plan. Remains of what is one of Norway’s oldest cemeteries have been found under and around the church, with the oldest graves being from around 980 AD. This suggests that there was a well-established Christian community around the year 1000. 

    The church went out of use after the Reformation and was left in ruins. 

    Bispegata

    Street

    This is where the medieval avenue called Bispeallmenningen ran. During excavations in 1954, the original street was found in multiple layers between 1.5 metres and 4 metres below the current surface, and three wooden bridges were found. 

    Oslo Ladegård

    Oslo Bishop's Residence

    During the Middle Ages, Oslo Ladegård was the residence of the bishop. It was one of the city’s most important political centres of gravity until the Reformation removed power from the Church. 

    The current house is from 1725 but is built on the remains of a manor house from earlier times. This is where King James of Scotland (or James I of England) and Princess Anna were married in 1589. In the basement are remains of the bishop’s residence from the 13th century. 

    Oslo Torg

    Oslo Square

    The large road junction is where the site of Oslo Torg stood. It was the medieval city’s Roman Forum and meeting place for the King and his men. It is where Oslo’s earliest court stood. 

    It is believed that Oslo Torg was triangular, similar to the medieval square in Lund’s old town in Sweden. 

    The main function of the square was as a market. Goods from the port would be brought up here. Additionally, farmer’s from around Oslo would come here to sell their goods. Food was primarily traded, such as grain, flour, butter, cheese, vegetables, fish, and products from domestic animals. There was also toilet paper (which back then was moss), cotton wool, wooden tools, and other items for the home. Foreign retailers also came here, such as the Hanseatic League. 

    Oslo Torg was also the site of Norway’s only winter market, which was held every year at Lent. 

    The position of the market began to disappear in the 18th century as other roads were being constructed. In the 1960s, a six-lane motorway was built over the square, and now the entire square and parts of the bishops castle are underneath the motorway. 

    Minneparken

    Memorial Park

    Now we’ll visit Minneparken, which is where a number of ruins from Oslo are located. 

    Hallvardskatedralen

    St. Hallvard Cathedral

    It is believed that King Sigurd Jorsdalfare began construction of the cathedral in the early 12th century. The cathedral is named after Oslo’s patron saint Hallvard, who was shot when he tried to save an innocent, pregnant woman accused of theft. The body of St. Hallvard was moved from its original location at Lier and enshrined in a silver casket that was placed on the high altar. 

    The most important parts of the church were completed in 1130, when King Sigurd was buried in the south wall of the choir. 

    Hallvard Cathedral was Eastern Norway’s religious centre for over 500 years. It was the coronation church, royal wedding church, royal burial chapel, and one of Scandinavia’s most visited pilgrimage destinations. 

    The style of the cathedral was unique. The builders took inspiration from the south and east of Europe, and it’s believed the present-day Gamle Aker Church was modelled after Hallvard Cathedral. 

    After the fire of 1624, Hallvard Cathedral was still standing and must’ve been in good condition as it remained as the main church for Eastern Norway until 1639, when the Holy Trinity Church in the new part of Oslo was completed. After this, Hallvard Cathedral fell into disrepair and in 1696 was demolished. It now became a quarry for Akershus Fortress, while some of the stone was used in the construction of Oslo Cathedral. One of the stones from Hallvard Cathedral can be seen on the corner of the tower of Oslo Cathedral today. Additionally, two of Oslo Cathedral’s four bells are from Hallvard Cathedral. Some items from the cathedral have been preserved in museums. For example, in the University of Oslo’s Antiquity Collection there is an altar cross from the 13th century. 

    In the 1770s, the gravestones (which dated from 1130 to 1660) were removed as filling material and road surface.

    The first excavation took place in 1835. At the beginning of the 1920s, the whole ruin came to light. However, in the 1960s part of the cathedral was covered by concrete to allow for the expansion of Bispegata. 

    Olavsklosteret

    St. Olav Monastery

    Located next to the ruins of the Hallvard Cathedral is the Olav Monastery. The monastery was built in 1240 next to the Olav Church. They had a herb garden north of the monastery and a pond, both of which were restored in 1929. After the Reformation, the monastery was converted to a bishop’s residence.

    The current Oslo bishopric is located in the building built on the eastern ruins. The western ruins were only uncovered in the 1950s. 

    Korskirken

    Cross Church

    The last ruins in Minneparken are of Korskirken, a small parish church located on the northern boundary of Oslo. It is not known when the church was built and it is not mentioned in written documents about a famous battle in Oslo in 1240. However, in 1989 a rune stick was found dating to the first half of the 13th century, and it mentions Korskirken. 

    A Little Further Away...

    If you want to explore more of Old Oslo, there are more remains scattered around the neighbourhood. Here they are. 

    Nonneseter Klosteret

    Nonneseter Monastery

    Nonneseter Monastery was constructed around 1150 and was a Benedictine convent for nuns dedicated to the Holy Mary. The monastery was mentioned for the first time in 1161. Snorre Sturlason refers to the monastery in Håkon Herdebrei’s saga when he describes the Battle of Ekeberg.

    Nonnester Monastery was one of the largest landowners in Norway, owning 272 farms in Eastern Norway. The monastery existed for some time after the Reformation, but it was confiscated in 1547 and given to Akershus Fortress. It eventually fell into disrepair and was demolished in 1616.

    The remains were discovered when the building at Scheiwgaards gate 50 was built in 1887.

    Today the remains of the monastery can be found under the ground beneath the properties at Schweigaards gate 55 and Grønlandsleiret 73.

    Oslo Hospital

    This is the site of Norway’s oldest hospital. However, it didn’t start out as a hospital. This site was originally a Franciscan monastery that was established here under King Håkon V. 

    After the Reformation, the monastery was handed over to the city and turned into a hospital. The hospital operation was based on the work of the Franciscans: the Gray Friars carried out targeted care work for lepers and others of the city’s weakest. It eventually became a psychiatric hospital and remained as such until 2018, when it closed. 

    The buildings burned in 1567, and the monastery church remained standing until 1794. It was then replaced by the Gamlebyen church, which was built partly on top of the ruins of the old church. 

    The oldest building on the property is the Gråsteinbygningen (Grey Stone Building), which was erected in 1737 using several types of stone from Ekebrg, including limestone, clay, slate and gneiss. 

    Gamlebygen Church is a privately owned church located on the property. The first church was built here at the end of the 13th century and was one of the first buildings in Oslo to be built of brick. After the Reformation, the church was also converted into a hospital. The church was destroyed by Swedes in 1567 and has since been rebuilt many times. The last time it was rebuilt was in 1939. 

    Galgeberg

    Gallows Hill

    Just north of Gamle Oslo is the neighbourhood Galgeberg. This name gives away what it used to be – Gallows Hill. In the Middle Ages, the area was a place for public executions and the gallows stood here. 

    The road the gallows stood on was part of the most important road network out of Oslo towards the north. 

    The gallows stood in a courtyard where the residential complex Galgeberg 3 is. The flagpole marks the specific spot. 

    Close by is a small street called Justiskroken, which is believed to have been where the executioner lived. A small wooden house stands here and is from the middle of the 18th century.

    You can read about the last execution of Galgeberg here: https://www.dagsavisen.no/oslo/byhistorie/2021/10/08/da-det-siste-hodet-rullet-pa-galgeberg/

    Oslo Travel Guide

    You can find a detailed overview of Oslo, including practical, historic and travel information on our dedicated travel guide page. 

    Oslo Travel Guide
  • Eidfjord, Hardangerfjord, History, Kinsarvik, Norway, Utne

    Hidden Secrets at Historic Kinsarvik Church

    Hidden Secrets at Historic Kinsarvik Church

    When driving along Highway 13 between Eidfjord and Odda, you’ll pass through the village of Kinsarvik. You wouldn’t really know it was a village, let alone an important Viking-era settlement, because it has now been transformed into something of a holiday park with water activities for kids and cabins to rent. But look a little closer and you’ll see a stone church down by the water. This is one of the oldest churches in the region and hints at the historic importance of Kinsarvik.

    I find the Kinsarvik church fascinating. Tucked away by the fjord, this small unassuming church carries almost 1,000 years of history. So, when you are doing your road-trip, be sure to stop by the church and admire its uniqueness!

    Here is some information about the Kinsarvik Church.

    Eidfjord Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide

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    The Earliest Church

    Kinsarvik Church is the oldest stone church in the Hardanger region and used to function as the main church for the region. It is strategically located at the junction of the Hardangerfjord and the Sørfjorden, which leads to Odda, so locals could row their boats into Kinsarvik and attend church.

    The earliest records of the church date back to 1298, but the church wasn’t built then. The stone church isn’t even the first church on the site; it’s believed a wooden church stood here around 1050. The wooden church was likely a ‘post church’, which is the predecessor to the stave church. The difference between them is that the post church has its beams going directly into the ground, while stave churches rest on stone foundations. Post churches don’t survive anymore because, well, putting posts directly into the ground meant the wood would rot. Stave churches are an evolution of the post church in that regard because the stone protects the wood from rotting.

    The stone church was built to replace the old wooden church around 1160, and remains of the wooden church have been found underneath. Building in stone was very expensive and only reserved for churches of importance. Think of Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim and Oslo with their well-preserved stone churches. These were all major cities. So, using stone at Kinsarvik indicates that this was an important place.

    Romanesque details at Kinsarvik Church

    Church Style

    The church is built in a Romanesque style with a rectangular nave, and the foundation walls are about 1.5m (4ft 11 inches) wide.

    Archaeological excavations have found there was a fire in the church around the year 1180. This was around the time of the Norwegian Civil War, and there were two major groups – the Birkebeiner and the Bagler – fighting against each other. It is documented that the Birkeners ravaged the area, so it may be them who caused the fire.

    The choir was built after the fire, likely around the 13th century.

    Kinsarvik Church

    Exterior Detailing

    If you look at the church, you’ll notice that all of the portals, window openings and walls have been retained from the Middle Ages.

    Something that is curious is the window high up on the west gable. It is a window leading up to the church attic. It is here that they used to hoist the local ship sails and masts to store during the winters.

    Renovation

    The church had its last major renovation in 1880 during a time when ancient Norwegian sites were being restored to their former appearance. At Kinsarvik Church, much of the old furniture was removed and the church went back to its medieval feel.

    Inside the Church

    The church has many unique interior qualities. The first is the large number of cavities that can be found in the church walls. There were used as places to hide valuables, but Kinsarvik Church has an unusually high number. Considering Kinsarvik used to be a Viking settlement, maybe they had to deal with regular raids?

    Kinsarvik Church

    Another important item inside the church is the antemensalet (decorations in front of the altar). The one at Kinsarvik Church is considered one of the most valuable paintings of North European medieval art. It shows the saviour on the cross and the crucifixion, and above the cross is written “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews”. Around the edge is “Neither of God nor man is this image, as you see. But it is an image of both God and man”. The painter was bad at Latin and made several mistakes. The original can be see at the Cultural History Museum in Bergen, but a copy is inside the church.

    Kinsarvik Church

    However, my favourite part of the interior of the church is the artwork on the walls. I’ve been lucky enough to go inside Kinsarvik Church, and I was taken away by the interior artwork. The church used to be whitewashed, but someone scraped away some of the plaster. A piece of painting from the Middle Ages came to light.

    The painting on the south wall shows a bishop and is painted from floor to ceiling. Meanwhile, on the north wall, there is the archangel Michael. Underneath is a devil who is trying to tip the scales over to their side with a boat shake.

    Michael and the weight of the soul were a common motif in Danish chalk painting in the Middle Ages, but this is the only one of its kind in Norway. I remember the priest telling us that he wished they’d remove it because modern churchgoers don’t exactly want to see a giant devil, but I kind of hope they keep it!

    Kinsarvik Church

    Church Legends

    There is a prediction that the church will collapse during a service. This almost happened on the 7th of May 1865, right after Reverend Irgrens had finished his sermon the church began to shake. Cracks in the walls widened and chalk sprinkled down from the walls. People panicked and tried to get out, and some were injured (though not seriously). The pastor then used it to give a speech that no one can escape from Gods will.

    Another event that happened here was in December 1793, when a major flood hit the region. At Kinsarvik Church, a large part of the cemetery was washed away by water and the coffins floated out into the fjord. Legend says that the Engel Simonson Ringøy, who died in 1739, floated ashore in his boat dock on Ringøy. The coffins were brought back in and placed under the floor of the church. Under the floor of the choir is a crypt where parish priest Løgit, his wife and children lie.

    Visiting Kinsarvik Church

    Unfortunately the church is not usually open to the public, but they do host special concerts and events there. Otherwise, it is possible to park by the church and admire it from the outside.

    You can view events on their website here: https://ullensvang.kyrkjer.no/Kyrkjelydane/Kinsarvik

    As you can see, Kinsarvik Church is a fascinating historic building that is tucked away in this resort village.

    It’s easy to visit here if you are taking the ferry across to Utne – the ferry is about a 1 minute walk from the church. Click here for my article about Utne.

    Have you visited the church? Let me know in the comments!

    Eidfjord Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide
  • Ålesund, History

    The History of Ålesund

    The History of Ålesund

    Ålesund is today famous for its famous art nouveau architecture, but the city has a fascinating past all the way back to the time of the Vikings. The settlement at Ålesund didn’t emerge until the 18th century, but the area around Ålesund is mentioned in all the Norse sagas as a wealthy trading area. After Ålesund got market rights to compete against Bergen’s monopoly, people began settling here to take part in the rich cod fisheries. A fire in 1904 completely devastated the city, but Ålesund rose from the ashes as one of the most beautiful cities in Norway. Here is my overview of the history of Ålesund.

    In this article...

    Ålesund Travel Guide
    Finland Travel Guide

    The Viking Sagas

    Ålesund isn’t mentioned for the first time until the 18th century, but places around Ålesund are known from the Viking Age. For example, Steinvåg is mentioned in connection with St. Olav’s visit in 1029, and in 1184 King Sverre (who founded Trondheim) visited the area.

    However, there is one place in particular that is famous from the Viking Age.

    Borgund

    To the southeast of Ålesund city centre is a place known as Borgund (not to be confused with the famous stave church of the same name). Borgund is the oldest known dwelling in the region. This is where the history of Ålesund begins.

    Archaeological excavations have shown settlement from the 11th century onwards. The remains of up to four marble churches have been found, indicating the area was very wealthy and important. One of the medieval churches, Borgund Church, is still standing today. Excavations show there there 40-50 dwellings here.

    The reason for Borgund’s importance was the rich fisheries in the Borgund Fjord, in particular the cod fisheries. The town functioned as a gathering and distribution centre for products from the region that would then be sent on to Bergen and sold to the Hanseatic League. Exchange goods, such as ceramics from Germany and textiles from England, were brought back from Bergen.

    Borgund survived partly in thanks to a powerful family called the Giske Family.

    Visiting Borgund Today: Borgund is located just outside of Ålesund. You can visit the church or one of two museums on the side; The Medieval Museum (https://www.vitimusea.no/musea/middelaldermuseet) or the Sunnmøre Museum (https://www.vitimusea.no/musea/sunnmoere-museum)

    You can read about the excavation work on the University of Bergen website (including pictures): https://www.uib.no/en/rg/borgund-kaupang/134757/excavating-borgund

    Giske

    The Giske Family was a Norwegian aristocratic family from the Viking Age through to the 17th century. They lived on an island called Giske, which is today just north of the city of Ålesund and accessible by road tunnel.

    The family is mentioned in the Norse Sagas and were connected to both St. Olav and the King Harald Hardråde through marriage. One of the Giske’s fell at the famous Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, which is regarded as the end of the VIking Age.

    Through marriage and purchasing, the Giske family became one of the wealthiest families in Norway. The last Giske died in 1605 (a widow with no children), and at the time the estate owned 192 properties.

    It is possible to visit the island of Giske today. Their church, Giske Church, still stands today. Burial mounds are also located on the island and can be visited.

    Ålesund's Early Years

    Due to Bergen’s monopoly on trade in Norway, Borgund eventually declined in importance. However, Bergen’s monopoly did not last forever; starting in the 1700s there was increased demand to open more market towns along the Norwegian coast. The site of present-day Ålesund was chosen was one of these new market towns. There were people living here at the time; Ålesund was first mentioned in 1766, when a Norwegian priest called Hans Strom mentioned Aalesund (the old spelling of the town name).

    Ålesund received trading rights in 1793. However, this did not immediately result in success; it took another 60 years before major growth started. Full market town rights were granted in 1848, and after that the city began to see growth.

    Ålesund’s town centre was built around the narrow Ålesundet sound between the islands. The first settlers came from Bergen; living and trading here for part of the year.

    Rapid Growth & Wealth

    The modern founders of the town are considered to be the member of Parliament, Peter Tonning, and the fish exporter Carl Rønneberg. They ensured that Ålesund was given rights to trade and export without going through Bergen. Because of this, Ålesunds growth coincides with Bergen’s decline.

    Thanks to the natural harbour, Ålesund grew very quickly. The nearby rich fisheries and the harbour brought people from all over the west. Eventually fish processing factories were established, and the expanding fishing fleet grew here as well. Eventually steamships began docking at Ålesund and larger factories were built.

    In 1872, author Magdalene Thoresen described the city as follows:

    It is a fresh sight to see this small coastal town with its newly built houses, scattered over the bare mounds that often look like reefs, and you get the impression that it was built in a hurry, built up by chance and the mood which comes with a fast, dangerous profession. Here, no even, calm deliberation goes through anything; even the large, dizzying warehouses and individual magnificent buildings speak only of the rapid rise of profit and the boldness of large speculations. Of course, there are also buildings which clearly show that here prosperity resides in safe enclosure, here no more daring. But most of it gives the impression of rapid rise

    Ålesund continued to experience wealth and rapid growth until the fire of 1904 struck.

    1904 Fire

    Because of the rapid growth of the city, the towns buildings were somewhat randomly built timber buildings. This was a huge reason why the city was so quickly devastated by fire.

    On the 23rd of January 1904, a fire started in the Aalesund Preserving Company’s factory at around the same time a storm from the southwest was blowing through. Overnight, the fire destroyed over 800 buildings and 10,000 of Ålesund’s 12,000 people were left homeless.

    Only one person died; an elderly woman who had safely evacuated her home but decided to go back to retrieve her purse. Ironically, she lived closest to the fire station.

    One other man refused to leave his home so his friends and family carried out all his furniture and belongings to save them from the fire. After the fire, the house survived but all the furniture was destroyed.

    Financial Help

    The news of the destruction of Ålesund spread all throughout Europe, and money began pouring in to help rebuild the city. One of the biggest contributors was Kaiser Wilhelm II, who had spent many vacations in the area. He sent five support ships full of food, medicine, construction materials, blankets, and other forms of aid to the town. The main street in Ålesund is named after him because of this.

    Architectural Style

    After the fire, the city decided to employ fresh Norwegian architects to design and rebuild the town. The approximately 50 architects selected to design the town had just studied abroad and become influenced by the Jugendstil, or Art Nouveau, style, and decided to rebuild the town in a very uniform style.

    Art Nouveau in Norway takes a lot of influence from medieval buildings such as stave churches but also motifs from the Viking Age and Norse Sagas. Additionally, lots of nature elements are used on the buildings.

    Learn more: In Ålesund you’ll find the Jugendstilsenteret, a museum all about Ålesund’s art nouveau architecture. The museum also covers how the city was devastated by fire but quickly rebuilt itself.

    Rebuilding

    Ålesund was rebuilt very quickly. By 1906, a major part of the town had been rebuilt with well-planned streets and strict building specifications. Timber was forbidden in the town centre but still exists around the town.

    The big reason for the rapid rebuilding was that there were so many tradesmen without work at the time, so it was easy to hire people.

    World War II

    After the Nazi invasion of Norway on the 9th of April 1940, Ålesund was not immediately occupied. It was free territory during the initial phase of fighting in Norway. The government used the Ålesund coastal radio station to communicate with the United Kingdom, and because of this Ålesund was bombed in late April 1940.

    After the Nazis occupied Ålesund, the mountain Aksla was used for military fortifications.

    Ålesund became known as ‘Little London’ by the Gestapo because of the resistance work that took place here. The large transport group known as the Shetland Bus used Ålesund as one of their major bases for transporting goods between Shetland and Norway. Several members of the group were caught and executed for their participation in the group.

    Ålesund Today

    Today Ålesund is one of the main centres in Western Norway and is also home to Norway’s largest and most modern ocean-going fishing fleets. There are also shipyards, mechanical workshops and other industries here.

    You can read about Ålesund, as well as what to do when visiting, on my Ålesund travel guide page.

    Ålesund Travel Guide
    Finland Travel Guide
  • Central Norway, History, Trondheim

    Finding St. Olav at Stiklestad, an Important Christian Site in Norway

    Finding St. Olav at Stiklestad, an Important Christian Site in Norway

    If you’re in Trondheim or driving around it, one of the places you can visit nearby is Stiklestad. Stiklestad is a small agricultural village with a big story: it was the site of the most famous battle in Norwegian history. The Battle of Stiklestad is when Norway’s Saint Olav was killed in battle in 1030.
    Today Stiklestad is not so much a town as it is a huge shrine to St. Olav. Even if you aren’t religious or even know who St. Olav was, there’s something fascinating about this place. It’s basically an open field full of monuments, churches and chapels, plus some places designed to bring in tourist dollars.
    I visited Stiklestad this year while driving from Trondheim to Namsos. I must admit I was a little disappointed; I felt the attractions (most of which were built in the last 20 years) were too focused on kids on summer holidays. Still, I love Norwegian history and wanted to visit.
    Here’s my overview of Stiklestad.

    In this article...

    Trondheim Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide

    History of Olav & Stiklestad

    Who was Saint Olav?

    Olav (or Olaf, depending on where in the world you are) was not born into the sainthood life, the sainthood life chose him. He was born around 995 as the son of a petty king in Vestfold, though he was the great-great-grandchild of Harald Fairhair, Norway’s first king. He was raised in England, where he became influenced by Catholicism. He decided to return to his home country and try to convert the people, who were mostly pagan at the time. Additionally, Olav saw it as his calling to unite Norway as one country. In 1015, Olav returned to Norway and declared himself king. At the time, Norway was divided into petty kingdoms. Olav was able to get five of them on his side, mostly in the south.
    Olav is widely accredited with Christianising Norway, though some historians debate the influence he had. What many historians do agree on is that Olav was particularly violent in the ways he Christianised the people: he would travel to the small villages and tell them to become Christian, or he’d kill them. Many stave churches were erected during this time to appease Olav. It’s believed Olav used Christianity as a means to get control over Norway.
    Olav was known as a strong fighter, and during his time as the Norwegian king, he took part in several battles around the North and Baltic Seas. In these battles, he succeeded, asserting his suzerainty in the Orkney Islands, raiding Denmark, and making peace with Sweden. His success was short-lived, though. In 1029, the Norwegian nobles were tired of Olav and supported the invasion of King Cnut the Great in Denmark. Olav was driven to exile in Russia. He returned to Norway in 1029 but fell at the Battle of Stikelstad in 1030. King Cnut ruled Norway for five years after the battle, but their regency was unpopular and Olav’s illegitimate son Magnus (the Good) lay claim to the Norwegian throne.

    The Battle of Stiklestad

    The Battle of Stiklestad is one of the most famous battles in Norwegian history. This is the battle where Olav died. Now, the authenticity of the battle as a historical event is subject to question. There are differing stories about Olav’s death, but for argument’s sake, we will use the most commonly told story.
    As mentioned above, Olav returned to Norway after a short stint in exile in 1029. Olav and his 3,600 men travelled through Sweden before arriving at Stikelstad, a small farm in the lower part of the valley Verdal. When at Stiklestad, Olav and his men met an army led by Harek of Tjøtta and some men who had previously served Olav. The men were tired of the king’s brutal methods in converting the people to Christianity. There are conflicting stories as to who killed Olav – either it was his own, some men in an ambush, or a cowardly assault by strangers. However, this battle would cause Olav’s death.
    According to the sagas, Olav received three severe wounds – in the knee, neck, and finally, a spear through his stomach. This battle took place on the 29th of July, a day now full of festivities in Stiklestad.
    After his death, his body was laid in a sandy bank in Trondheim. According to the sagas, a farmer from Stiklestad buried the body here. The following year the grave was taken up ad given a new grave outside St. Clements Church. Shortly after, the coffin was again moved into the church that would eventually become Nidaros Cathedral. It’s written that Olav’s body was intact, sweet-scented and with hair and nails having grown since his death. A well close to where his body lay was believed to have healing powers. Olav was canonised on the 3rd of August 1031 by Bishop Grimkjell in Norway. In 1164, Pope Alexander III declared Olav a saint.
    There is little historical connection between the battle and the Christianisation of Norway, but the battle is still considered an important part of Christianity in Norway.

    Shrines & Sainthood

    After Olav became a saint, a cult around Olav was quickly formed, and it is widely accredited for unifying the country. In that sense, Olav was successful in unifying Norway – it was just after his death.
    Olav’s shrine at Nidaros quickly became an important pilgrimage site, and it is first mentioned in history in 1070. By this time, he was already referred to as Norway’s eternal king. The shrine was the resting place for his remains and it sat behind the high altar in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim.
    There were three shrines to Olav. The first was the original wooden coffin from Stiklestad, covered by an expensive cloth. The second was a costly shrine that was made by King Magnus Olavsson, Olav’s son. The third shrine was covered in silver and covered the other two shrines. Olav’s shrine is no more, though. After the Reformation, the shrine was taken out of Nidaros Cathedral. It’s believed to have been lost on a shipwreck on the Trondheim Fjord on its way to Copenhagen. All valuables from Nidaros were smashed and taken to Copenhagen for melting. From the shrine holding Olav came 2.6kg of silver and several gold plates. Denmark has never paid any compensation to Norway for the destruction of St. Olav’s Shrine and the theft of silver and jewels.
    It’s believed that the original wooden coffin was kept and buried at Steinvikholm when the Archbishop was fleeing during the Reformation. However, 24 years after the Reformation was the Nordic Seven-Year War, and the Swedes occupied the area. They moved the wooden coffin to Fløan Chapel and then to Nidaros Cathedral. They put it back under the cathedral, but the exact location is unknown. Later on, when the area was back under Danish control, the Danish minister let “earth fill the grave of St. Olav’s body” to put an end to the pilgrimages. Many historians have tried to find the coffin but have been unsuccessful. There are many medieval graves in Nidaros, and historians think it’s one of them.

    Olav Around Europe

    Olav became very popular in Scandinavia, and many churches in Sweden, Iceland, and Norway are dedicated to him. His presence was even felt in Finland and many travelled to visit his shrine. It is possible still today to do the Pilgrims Way (Pilegrimsleden) from Oslo to Nidaros Cathedral. The journey is 640km and is done by hundreds of people each year.

    Apart from the early traces of a cult in England, there are only scattered references to him outside the Nordic area. Several churches in England were dedicated to him, including St. Olave’s Church in York, St. Olave Hart Street in the City of London, and St. Olave’s Church south of the London Bridge.

    Places with References to Olav

    • The basilica of the Sant’Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso in Rome has a chapel of St. Olav
    • In Germany, there used to be a shrine of St. Olav in Koblenz
    • In the Faroe Islands, the day of St. Olav’s death is a national holiday
    • The town of Ulvila in Finland uses St. Olav on their coat of arms
    • Normandy uses Saint Olav as an important figure and was chosen unofficially as the patron saint of the Normans. The normand flag has been called the St. Olav Cross.
    • A bone from St. Olav’s arm is kept as a relic in the crypt of the Rouen Cathedral.
    • Olav’s Chapel in Covarrubias, Spain
    • Olaf’s Church is the tallest church in Tallinn, Estonia. There are many churches named after St. Olav in Estonia
    • Saint Olaf Catholic church in Minneapolis. There are multiple St. Olav churches in North America
    • The oldest picture of St. Olav is painted on a column in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem
    • Olaf street in Lerwick, Scotland

    Stiklestad: What you can see and do

    The village of Stikelstad

    Stiklestad is a very small village that has primarily been used for agriculture since it was settled.
    Due to its association with Norwegian cultural history, between 1934 and 1944 Vidkun Quisling’s Nationalist Nasjonal Samling party held several rallies at Stiklestad in an attempt to link the party of Norway’s historic part. A special Nasjonal Samling monument was erected there in July 1944 but was demolished after the war.
    Click here to see a photo of the monument. 

    Stiklestad Visitor Centre

    People have been visiting Stiklestad ever since the battle in 1030, but it’s only in recent times that the location has been turned into more of a destination. Most of the structures and attractions have only been built in the last 20 years.
    The Stiklestad National Cultural Centre was established in 1995. However, monuments have been here since shortly after the battle. It’s believed the first monument was put up in medieval times, and the church was also established soon after.
    The visitor centre has some indoor exhibitions, but practically all the items inside are replicas. Still, it’s a good place to go to get an understanding of the importance of Olav in Norway. They also have a souvenir shop and a cafe.
    There is a huge free carpark by the visitor centre, which is where you’ll park.

    Stiklestad Church

    The church is the closest attraction to the visitor centre, and in my opinion it is the most important thing to see when in Stiklestad because it is closest in age to the Battle.
    Stiklestad Church was built in a Romanesque style around 1180. Construction was initiated by Archbishop Øystein Erlendsson, and it’s believed the site the church is built on is the place where Olav was killed. The stone that Olav was laying on as he died is supposedly still inside the altar of the church.
    Most of the interior decoration is post-Reformation. Today the church is a Lutheran Church. Only the richly decorated baptismal font is preserved from the medieval times. It’s from the 14th century. You’ll find some medieval decorative elements on the outside of the church, especially around the southern and northern portals.
    The most unique thing to see on the church is one of the sculptures on the northern side of the church. It is a woman squatting, lifting her skirt, and having sex. This ‘Sheelanagig’ figure is found throughout Trøndelag and it is also common in England, Ireland, and northern France. ‘Sheelanagig’ may be associated with fertility and protection against evil forces. This is a pre-Christian belief, so it’s interesting that it’s on a Christian church.
    In summer they do open the church to the public. You can book a guided tour from the Visitor Centre, which I’d highly recommend if interested in history.

    St. Olav's Chapel (Russian Orthodox)

    St. Olav’s Chapel is a Russian Orthodox church building from 2003. The chapel belongs to Saint Olga, a Russian Orthodox congregation in Oslo.

    St. Olav's Chapel (Catholic)

    There is another Saint Olav’s Chapel in Stiklestad. This one is a Catholic chapel from 1930, built for the 900th anniversary of the Battle of Stiklestad.

    Olavsstøtta

    This is a monument from 1807 in memory of the Battle of Stiklestad. The memorial is one of the oldest preserved public monuments in Norway. The monument is built on Olavhaugen with a view of Stiklestadsletta where the church is located. According to tradition, the monument was erected on the spot where the shed in which Olav was laid after he fell is said to be located.

    There are some legends that the monument has healing effects. A travelling violinist fell ill while going from Russia to Norway, but he recovered when he arrived at Stikelstad and touched the stone.

    The Middle Ages Centre

    The Middle Ages Centre is a farm that consists of a longhouse, smithy, and other small warehouses. The longhouse was completed in 2009 to try and show what a longhouse would’ve looked like at the end of the Viking Age. The longhouse is primarily to teach about the late Viking age and tell stories about the transition from the Norse pre-Christian society to the medieval society based on the Christian faith.

    Folk Museum

    Close by is the Folk Museum, a collection of 30 buildings from the surrounding farms. The buildings are typically from between the 17th and 19th centuries. There are also nearly 30,000 objects from these nearby properties. The goal of the museum is to document the history of farming in the Verdal valley.

    Plan Your Visit

    Where is Stiklestad?

    Stiklestad is 90 minutes north-east of Trondheim, making it a very reasonable day-trip if you want to get out of the city. Just follow the E6 north and you’ll see brown tourist signs indicating where to turn off to get to Stiklestad. I highly recommend going with a car.  It seems there are no direct buses from Trondheim.

    Finding your way around

    Once you’ve parked your car, it’s fairly easy to find your away around Stiklestad. To get to most attractions, it’s highly recommended to walk. Parking is not possible outside most places.

    The village is built on a slope, with the longhouse being on a hill. I would say it’s a 15 minute walk from the centre. Additionally, most of the area is an open field so it’s grassy to walk on.

    In the map above, I’ve provided an overview of where everything is. 

    Opening hours/prices

    To stay up-to-date with the opening hours and prices, I recommend checking out the Stiklestad website directly by clicking here.

    Parking is free.

    Most of the attractions are outdoors, so you can see them for free. The vast majority of activities take place during summer, between the end of June and middle of August. Honestly, a lot of the activities are centred around children. Still, if you want a historical or informative experience, you can book a guide.

    Spending the night

    There is a hotel in the main centre – the Scandic Stiklestad – where you can stay the night.

    Share your thoughts!

    This is all I have to say about Stiklestad. We spent about an hour here before heading out. We were more interested in Olavsstotta and the Stiklestad Church, both of which have some historic merit. The story of St. Olav and his importance still today is fascinating, but sadly the site where he was killed is so lacking in authentic history that it’s a little hard to find Stiklestad more than a bit of a tourist trap.

    Trondheim Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide
  • History, Hurtigruten, Kristiansund

    From the First People to Klippfisk: the History of Kristiansund

    From the First People to Klippfisk: the History of Kristiansund

    Kristiansund is an important place in Norway. Today it’s associated with the klippfisk (clip fish, dried and salted cod) trade that took place here. And rightly so! Thanks to klippfisk, we have Kristiansund. Still, there’s a lot more to this island city that is worth knowing before you make the trip there. The history of Kristiansund is truly fascinating.

    Here’s my historical overview of Kristiansund. As always, I have relied on books and websites that provide an incredible amount of detail. You can find links to them throughout and at the bottom of this article.

    In this article...

    Kristiansund Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide

    Kristiansund is the oldest settlement in Norway

    Kristiansund wasn’t always known as Kristiansund. The name came in 1742 when King Christian VI gave the settlement a town charter. The town gets its name from him, but more on that later.

    The first name of Kristiansund is Fosna. It’s generally believed that this place was one of the earliest settlements after the last Ice Age. People likely arrived around 8000BC as Kristiansund (and its surrounds) were one of the first ice-free places in Norway. Additionally, the surrounding sea had lots of food. Additionally, there was lots of stone and flint they could use as weapons and tools.

    Today, the first Norwegian peoples as known as the ‘Fosna culture’. Traces of these peoples were first made in Voldvatnet (Vold Lake) in 1909. Kristiansund isn’t the only place where the Fosna people lived – it’s just where they got their name. Fosna is an umbrella term for the oldest settlements along the Norwegian coast. Additionally, similar cultures were on the coastline in Sweden and Northern Germany. The sea used to be much higher – today their settlements are 60-70m above present sea level.

    You can visit Voldvatnet (also spelt Vollvatnet) today. Sadly it’s in a very crowded industrial place in Kristiansund. 

    Wiki (English) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosna%E2%80%93Hensbacka_culture

    Wiki (Norwegian) https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosna-Hensbacka-kulturen

    Vikings around Kristiansund

    While Kristiansund itself is not mentioned in the Viking Age, we know the Vikings were in this area. Firstly, because nearby Tingvoll was a historic meeting place. ‘Ting’ is an Old Norse word that means ‘assembly’. It’s where the chieftains would meet to discuss important matters. Secondly, the nearby island of Frei is mentioned in connection to a battle that took place during the Viking Age. You can read about it on my page about driving from Oppdal to Kristiansund as we drive past the place where it happened. 

    Fil:Grip hamna2005.jpg
    Grip (Source)

    Trade & Stockfish on the island of Grip

    Grip is one of the places I hope to visit and write about someday, but if you go to Kristiansund it’s an island you can take a day trip to. I recommend it.

    We know Kristiansund wasn’t very populated in the early years, but the island of Grip sure was. The first settlement of Grip is unknown. The island emerged from the sea sometime between 3500BC and 2500BC. This is well after the Fosna people of Kristiansund (and surrounds). There are no archaeological traces on the island, which is notoriously hostile. The very first fishermen to settle here must’ve been very brave!

    There are no written documents about when Grip was first settled. However, it was likely between the 9th and the 13th centuries. The island has no arable land and no shelter from strong winds, but it does have very rich fisheries. The people who moved here wanted to be close to the fishing grounds. In the 13th century, the Hanseatic League was gaining prominence in Bergen. The export of stockfish from Lofoten was becoming big business. The fishermen likely saw an opportunity in settling on this island, which is on the journey south from Lofoten to Bergen. 

    Grip became a very important place. In fact, it was the largest settlement in Nordmøre. The island came under the control of the archbishop of Norway, which is common. The church was the wealthiest landowner until the Reformation. 

    Fil:No-nb digibok 2014091028002 0141 1.jpg
    Grip in 1833 (Source)

    Grip has one of Norway’s 28 remaining stave churches. Grip Stave Church is from 1470 and is the oldest building on the island today. The altarpiece represents the strong connection to the Hanseatic merchants from Europe. Having a decorated stave church on such a remote island indicates how important this island was for the merchants. 

    The 15th and 16th centuries were the peak period for the island, thanks to the Hanseatic trade. Many wealthy merchants settled on Grip, and the population was as much as 300, making it the largest village in the region. The Hanseatic merchants exported stockfish to Europe, and Grip was one of the production sites. 

    Everything came crashing down at the Reformation when in 1537 King Christian III seized all church property in Norway. From the 18th century onwards, several harsh storms hit Grip, and the fishing grounds began to fluctuate. The population came and went depending on how good fishing was. No one lives permanently on the island today. Simply put, the island didn’t have a good enough location to develop a city. Additionally, towns by the fjords were becoming more popular as timber export grew. The houses today are holiday homes. You can visit Grip via a ferry from Kristiansund. 

    A harbour founded amongst islands

    Grip was where the action was, but there was a tiny settlement in Kristiansund. At the time it was known as Lille-Fosen based on the first peoples who lived here. The people lived on the meadow by the bay, Vågen, and this is where the city began to grow. You can see it on a map. Firstly, it’s where the Shipbuilding Museum is. Secondly, you can see how the bay is sheltered from strong winds coming in from the North Sea. 

    We know Grip wasn’t a great place to live. So, as trade moved away towards timber in the 17th century, merchants started looking for a natural harbour. This is the basis for commercial expansion and settlement in many places along the Norwegian coast. This is how Kristiansund began to grow. Even though Grip was important for boat traffic sailing along the coast, the significance of Lille-Fosen’s harbour between three islands increased. The small community grew from the 17th century, especially when the Dutch discovered it.

    The Golden Age of the Dutch Merchants, otherwise known as Hollendertiden

    The Dutch began coming to Norway in the 16th and 17th century to take all the timber. At the time, the Netherlands was the leading shipbuilding nation in Europe. To maintain this they needed a lot of timber. But not any timber. They needed long, straight trees with strong resilience to withstand harsh weather. Norway had large quantities of timber that they could buy at a reasonable price. 

    Fun fact: Amsterdam is literally built on Norwegian timber as timber was needed for foundations under large buildings.

    The Dutch came to the area around Kristiansund. There are some rich forests on the fjords, and the harbour of Kristiansund (then Lille-Fosen) was safe and suitable for them. The harbour Vågen became a permanent mooring and gathering place for vessels that visited the district. A customs station was established in 1630 to control the timber trade. 

    The Dutch didn’t only come to take all the timber; they brought goods for sale. Ceramics were very important. It’s likely they also brought wine, beer and liquors to Kristiansund. The Norwegians profited heavily from this, especially the forest and sawmill owners. They didn’t only go to Kristiansund; many coastal towns in Sørlandet, Østlandet, Vestlandet and Nordmøre (the stretch of coast from Kristiansand to Kristiansund) saw Dutch merchants come here. 

    The Dutch period lasted until 1850. 

    In the 1690s, something happened that would change Kristiansund forever. A Dutchman named Jappe Ippes brought knowledge about the production of klippfisk. He received a royal privilege that gave him permission to manufacture and export klippfisk. And so, a new industry was born. 

    Kristiansund in the early 18th century (Source)

    Klippfisk – Wikipedia
    Klippfisk

    The city founded on Klippfisk

    Kristiansund is said to be founded on klippfisk. After Jappe Ippes introduced the process in the 1690s, men came to Kristiansund to learn and expand the business. One of the most prominent men to come here was the Scotsman John Ramsay. John turned it into a large company, and soon after the most enterprising of merchants in Kristiansund gained control of all stages of klippfisk production. They received the catch, processed it, and then exported it. 

    We should back up a moment. What is klippfisk? It was virtually unknown in Norwegian cuisine at the time. Clipfish (I’m using the Norwegian name, klippfisk) is cod that has been both salted and dried. It is a descendant of stockfish – cod that dries unsalted and is as old as the Viking times. The process of salting fish started in the 15th century but was introduced to Norway by the Dutch. 

    ‘Klippfisk’ means ‘rock fish’ because they leave the fish out on rocks to dry. 

    There’s a big overview of how they make klippfisk (in English) here: https://cod.fromnorway.com/norwegian-cod/clipfish/

    During the 18th century, klippfisk became a major industry. Boats came in from the sea with the salted catch. Producing klippfisk was labour intensive, and soon factories popped up all over Vågen. They wash the fish before salting it again and drying it on a ‘fish mountain’. They then press it flat for two weeks to allow the saltwater to drain. Milnbrygga and Milnbergan are important cultural monuments from this time. Today, the whole process is modern and explained in that link above. 

    Thanks to klippfisk, the town began to expand. Lille-Fosen built up a large fleet with shipyards and ropeways. Expertise in shipbuilding was obtained from Copenhagen. The city grew in the 18th century as klippfisk became the major industry. 

    Lille-Fosen becomes Kristiansund

    The town got its name after King Christian VI granted it a town charter in 1742. He named it after himself, much like the Danish kings before him had named towns after themselves (see Kristiania/Oslo and Kristiansand in the south). Yes, there is often some confusion between Kristiansund and Kristiansand. Before postcodes, it was obligatory to add an N (for north) to Kristiansund and an S (for south) for Kristiansand. Some people still practice this, and when I say I’m going to Kristiansund, I have to word it like “KristianSUND (the one in the north)”. 

    The town charter meant expansion. Commerce in the town developed during the following decades and Kristiansund prospered. The demand for klippfisk was so great that the fishermen could not supply it all. Fishermen brought cod down from Lofoten and Finnmark to make the klippfisk. From the 1820s, salted herring also became an important export product. The city got a large fleet of sailing vessels, yachts, and galleys for traffic. The market expanded to the United States. The Danish merchant Christian Johnsen learned the principles of klippfisk trade in Bilbao and established his business in Kristiansund that exported klippfisk to Asia, South America, and Europe. Another klippfisk merchant, Nicolai H. Knudtzon, was Norway’s richest man at the end of the 19th century. 

    By the end of the 19th century, Kristiansund was a wealthy and prosperous town with merchant mansions, quaysides and wharves. 

    The Spanish Era & Eventual Collapse

    Around the time the Dutch trade was ending, the Spanish began to come to Kristiansund. Spain is one of the countries that ate a lot of klippfisk, due to the rules around Catholicism and not eating meat. Additionally, the Spanish had introduced bacalao using klippfisk. 

    Basically, the Spanish came to Kristiansund to buy klippfisk without a middle man. The Spanish sailors introduced bacalao to the city. 

    Fun fact: The ships that brought klippfisk to Spain brought back soil as ballast. The area around Kristiansund had little soil and Spanish soil was used in, among other things, the towns first public cemetery. 

    The klippfisk business continued until 1884. A sudden fall in market prices in Spain hit the companies in Kristiansund. All klippfisk exporters, with one exception, went bankrupt. 

    1870: https://digitaltmuseum.no/011013318326/kristiansund-more-og-romsdal-lunds-nr-21

    1880: https://digitaltmuseum.no/011013318387/panorama-av-havna-pa-innlandet-kristiansund-ca-1880-del-av-panorama-se

    Kristiansund in 1911 (Source)

    Kristiansund or Fosna?

    When Norway became independent in 1905, many cities started discussing the possibility of changing their name back. The Danes had changed many Norwegian town names. This is most prominent in Oslo, which was named Kristiania by Christian IV and changed back shortly after World War I. In Kristiansund, it was argued that the old name Fosna should replace Kristiansund. In 1929, a vote showed overwhelmingly that 99.1% of locals didn’t want the name changed. 

    The 1920s & 1930s: Wealth and Collapse

    At the end of the 19th century, Kristiansund was a beautiful city with many large merchant farms, boathouses and piers. The city didn’t have much of a zoning plan; instead, a house went wherever you could fit it. While this was impractical when cars were introduced, it was charming. Most of the houses were wooden.

    Kristiansund in 1882: https://digitaltmuseum.no/011013318183/gatebilde-fra-torvet-kirkelandet-kristianssund-1882-i-forgrunnen-til-venstre

    In 1928, 32 years before a national opera was founded in Oslo, the Norwegian Peoples Opera was founded in Kristiansund. So, opera came to Norway through Kristiansund. Today there is an opera festival that takes place every February. 

    Due to the limited scope of commercial activities, Kristiansund struggled to recover after the post-WWI economic collapse. Attempts in the 1930s to find new industries for Kristiansund began, but that was all halted by World War II. 

    The Bombing of Kristiansund (Source)

    World War II

    At the end of April 1940, when Nazi Germany was invading Norway, Kristiansund was subject to almost four days of continuous bombing by the German Luftwaffe. The town was left almost in ruins. Five people died, and 800 buildings were destroyed by fires that ravaged for days after the bombing. This corresponds to 28% of Norway’s total war damage to buildings during World War II. 

    Why did Germany bomb Kristiansund? Well, they thought the Norwegian King and the government were hiding here. They were not; they were in Molde. 

    Little could be rebuilt during the war, and most of the inhabitants who became homeless had to live in barracks until the end of the war. Some Swedish prefabricated houses were built in Kristiansund, and they still stand today. The street they are on is Vuggaveien. 

    Post-war Rebuilding

    After the war, Norwegian architects got to re-designing towns that were damaged during the war. The rebuilding was initiated under the ‘Brente steders regulation’ (Burnt Places Regulation). While a zoning plan was ready as early as August 1940, work couldn’t begin until after the war.

    Kristiansund got typical post-war architecture that characterises many of these ‘burnt places’. It’s best described as a sober functional style. The central parts of the city completely changed from charming, wooden districts to planned streets with concrete blocks. The building of Kirkelandet Church in 1964 marked the end of re-building.

    By 1950, 68% of the city had been rebuilt.

    Today, the reconstruction of Kristiansund is highlighted as one of the 20th century’s most worthy cultural environments in Norway. Furthermore, the town has the best-preserved examples of post-war architecture. The area that was rebuilt is the ‘Reconstruction City’ and has a very strong concentration of post-war houses not found elsewhere in Norway. 

    The main street, Kaibakken, is a great example of post-war design. It was a key element in the city’s reconstruction architecture. Many ‘burnt places’ in Norway got long, main streets like this one. They found inspiration in streets like the Champs Eylyss in Paris. 

    Finding new industries

    After the war, Kristiansund knew it had to expand beyond klippfisk. While klippfisk is still at the heart of the city, there are new industries in Kristiansund. The food industry is still important, but Kristiansund is now a central operations and supply base for the offshore oil industry. Oil is now the main commercial basis in the town.

    Modern Kristiansund's Highlights

    Today 24,334 people live in Kristiansund and it has all the facilities you’d ever need. The population of Kristiansund is actually rising. 

    Transport connections to Kristiansund are pretty good. Besides ferries out to the surrounding area, Kristiansund has the Norwegian National Road 70 and the European route E39. The airport, Kvernberget, has connections to major cities in Norway plus some European destinations in the summer. Kristiansund is also a port on the Hurtigruten. If you take the Hurtigruten southbound (Kirkenes – Bergen), you stop in Kristiansund for one hour in the afternoon. They have excursions to the Atlantic Road.

    There are plenty of primary, middle and upper secondary schools in Kristiansund. However, there no higher education facilities. 

     Culture & Tradition

    Kristiansund has a rich cultural life with the Opera Festival, the Nordic Light International Festival of Photography, the City Festival and the Tahiti Festival. The Opera House is the oldest in Norway. It is from 1914 and is one of the few buildings to survive the World War II bombing. Another one of the few buildings to survive World War II is Nordlandet Church, which is built of stone from 1914. It dominates the skyline on the island of Nordlandet. The newest church is Kirkelandet Church, which was the final postwar building in Kristiansund. 

    As you may imagine, there’s also a rich food culture in Kristiansund. Besides bacalao, another main dish is blandaball. I know the name doesn’t sound great in English. It’s a fishball consisting of fish (of course!), onion and potato. The ingredients are ground and shaped. In the middle is a piece of pork, just like a Norwegian Kinder Surprise. They don’t look great, but they taste excellent. 

    There are plenty of museums in Kristiansund about the history of the city. The Norwegian Bacalao Museum is the most popular. The Nordmøre Museum is also located here, plus the historic Mellemvaerftet Shipyard that you can visit. Vågen – the old harbour – has many interesting cultural monuments and is a great place to visit. Some old merchant farms and wharves are still standing. The old town was somehow spared during the bombing and it gives an insight into what Kristiansund used to look like.

    Lastly, the big thing people come here to see is the famous Atlantic Road – one of 18 national tourist roads in Norway. But more on that in a separate article.

    I hope you’ve enjoyed this overview of Kristiansund’s history, and that it’s inspired you to visit someday!

    Kristiansund Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide
  • History, Røros

    The Fascinating History of Mining in Røros

    The Fascinating History of Mining in Røros

    I love Røros. It is one of those places that has been on my list for a while, and finally in September 2020 I got to visit. I’m in love. If I didn’t live in Bergen, this website would be called iloveroros.net.

    One of the big reasons I love Røros is the history. There is so much here. Røros is a UNESCO World Heritage Area for its preserved town centre and unique mining heritage. There’s a lot to unpack, so I’ve put it all together into one article.

    This is a summarised version of the history of mining in Røros. There is a wealth of information online, and I’ve done my best to create a list of resources for you. Additionally, the museum shop is full of books about mining. I’m very grateful for these resources, as it allows me to write my version of the mining history. I couldn’t have done it without the readily available material online. I’ve posted all the links at the bottom of this page.

    In this article...

    RØros Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide

    The Early Years

    There wasn’t much here before mining came. A South Sami community grazed their reindeer here, and there were a few scattered settlements. That’s about it.

    Interest in mining started with the Danish-Norwegian King, Christian IV. Due to all the wars with Sweden, Denmark-Norway was in desperate need of minerals, metal deposits, and money. The three m’s. There was another mine already here: Kvikne Copper Works. It was – at the time – the country’s largest mine. Assuming there were more mining opportunities, Christian IV put out a statement. In it, he said that great rewards will come to those who found some of that good stuff under the ground.

    A local man discovered copper in the ground while out reindeer hunting. After that, it took just months before the first mine – Old Storwartz – was in operation. Men came from Kvikne to help build up the mine. Operations began in August 1644 after recruiting some Norwegian soldiers, but it wasn’t great. There were bad deposits here, and the mine was only in operation for a few months. Eventually, though, the region became a good sport for mining and new mines went up all over the landscape.

    The establishment of Røros Kobberverk (Røros Copper Works) was to manage all mining activity. The company operated from 1644 until its closure in 1977.

    The Circumference

    Once it was clear that mining was the future of the region, Christian IV issued a letter of privilege to Røros Kobberverk. The letter gave them exclusive rights to minerals, forests and watercourses within an area bounded by a circle. The circle has a radius of four ancient Norwegian miles (45.2km) with a centre at the Old Storwaltz mine. This is the Circumference.

    What happened if you were one of the few farmers in that area? Well, for a fee, the farmers had to sell their products and goods to Røros Kobberverk and do work for them. But this wasn’t a bad thing; back then the farmers needed a second source of income, and the mining activity was able to provide that. The farmers who did work for the plant typically transported goods or provided timber. The farmers had one day off a week and one month off a year, which they used for their farms.

    Within the Circumference, Røros began to grow as a hub for the mining activity. it also helped that the main smelting plant, now a museum, was here.

    Today the UNESCO World Heritage Area is the Circumference. When driving in and out of Røros, you will see signs indicating where the UNESCO site begins. That’s the Circumference! How many times have I said Circumference in this piece?

    Bergstad or Røros

    Sometimes you will see Røros mentioned as ‘Bergstad’. A Bergstad is a community that is centred around mining. These mining towns had their own laws and royal agreements. The mining town was in many ways a state, responsible for everything. In Norway, there were only ever two mining towns: Kongsberg and Røros. Today Kongsberg has city status, but Røros is still a designated ‘Bergstad’. It’s more unique that way.

    How did Røros Kobberverk Work?

    This one is a little tricky. The company was a partnership with many owners, and copper was split among the owners according to the size of their share in the company. They then had to sell the copper on their own.

    I’ll explain how the workers well, worked, further down.

    Røros Kobberverk was responsible for the food supplies, education and health services within the Circumference and the surrounding area.

    The Røros website has a detailed overview of the company structure, which you can view here.

    Early Mining

    The most common minerals extracted were copper, zinc, chrome and pyrites. Copper was the dominant mineral, though.

    Early mining was very, very difficult. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, most work was by hand. They broke ore out of the rock by lighting enormous wood fires. The fire heats the rock and forces it to become brittle and crack. Crowbars got the ore out of the rock.

    They needed a lot of wood to do this. When there was a lack of timber, they used explosives. They drilled holes by hand, using sledgehammers, chisels and crowbars. Gunpowder went in the holes, and then they sealed the holes with clay or wooden plugs. After this, they lit the fuse. This way was easier, but having to make holes in the rock was incredibly labour intensive.

    There were many constant issues during the early years of mining. Air ventilation was a problem, as was pumping out water and transporting the ore. Carbon and sulphur gases from the fires and explosives had to leave the mines as quickly as possible. The shafts ensured some circulation of air, and the shafts also lifted out the ore and pumped water. In the early years, individuals had to carry the water out with buckets. As technology developed, though, there were horse-driven bucketing plus water wheels to supply power.

    Growth & Peak of Mining

    It was a shaky start; mining didn’t really take off until 100 years after the founding of Røros Kobberverk. In a period starting from 1740, several mines were bringing in a large number of goods.

    A good sign of the wealth of Røros Kobberverk is the church. It is from 1784 and funded by the company. It made a statement of the Company’s wealth and authority. It’s also fun to know: No other Norwegian company ever contributed so much to the royal income as Røros.

    Røros’ heyday lasted from 1740 until 1814 when Norway’s union with Denmark ended. The mines continued to be profitable until the 1860s when copper prices fell and operations became more expensive.

    Røros Skyline 😉

    Røros Grows as a Town

    The first Smeltehytta (now the museum) was built on the river that flows through today’s Røros in 1646. A clear town plan is seen on the first map of Røros from 1658. The map shows two main streets running parallel joined by linking, smaller lanes. The town today has this same layout. The climate played a huge part in the development of Røros. There was much more shelter by putting the houses close together and protecting against the winter frosts and bad weather. Most of the houses are around a central, sheltered courtyard.

    One of the main streets

    The main street in 1869 (Source)

    Røros was burned down by Swedish troops in 1678 and 1679, and the town we see today is from after these fires.

    Much of the layout of the town is based on status. On the eastern side of Storgata is where you’ll find the company executive’s homes. At the bottom of the street is the impressive General Manager’s house in a Baroque style.

    On Kjerkgata are the labourer’s houses; built on both sides of an evenly spaced street. At the top is the church.

    Haugan is a district that grew in the 17th century. It doesn’t follow the same town plan. The buildings are built more haphazardly. From the middle of the 18th century small single cottages went up – many without outhouses.

    Life as a Worker in Røros

    The majority of people who worked at Røros Kobberverk usually acquired a small farm or smallholding, and they kept animals on their property. The animals are a source of food, and a family without animals would struggle to live here. Also, by having a farm, the families had another way to make money in case it had been a bad year for mining. This was common until as late as the 1960s.

    Workers housing near the Smeltehytta

    Anyone living in Røros had to contribute to mining somehow. The women often worked as cleaners in wealthy homes, or they produced food or clothing.

    In the early years of mining, the miners worked 10-hour days 5 days a week. There was some flexibility; miners could leave when it suited them provided they work back the hours they had taken free. However, this luxury ended in 1713. After that, miners had to live at the mines in barracks for a whole week from Monday to Friday. The barracks had bunk beds along the walls and a central fire to keep them warm.

    Originally, all employed workers received the same daily wage paid out monthly. From 1720 it became more competitive, with types of work auctioned off for the lowest price. These types of auctions and contracts became common by the 1800s to reduce labour costs and improve efficiency.

    The Smelting Process at the Smeltehytta (Smelting Cabins)

    The Smeltehytta was important to copper production. Here the copper ore underwent a long and laborious smelting process. Smelting is the process of separating the good stuff from the raw ore.

    The first Smeltehytta is from 1646. Typically, the Smeltehytta were close to rivers to utilise hydropower. They were in forests as they required large amounts of timber. The two most important factors when building a Smeltehytta was that it was by a river and close to plenty of timber. The river could not freeze in the winter and had to have enough power to drive the bellows that forced air into the smelting furnaces.

    The first Smeltehytta is in Røros. Eventually, they were built all over the Circumference and surrounding area. At the peak, there were twelve Smeltehytta’s in the Circumference. It was cheaper to transport the ore to a Smeltehytta than it was to transport timber to Røros. The Røros smelter survived almost the entire length of Røros Kobberverk’s history. Today, it’s a museum – more on that below.

    The Smeltehytta at Røros

    Slag mountain in Røros. People for scale.

    You’ll see slag all over the landscape, most famously in Røros town centre. Slag is the by-product left over after a metal has been separated (i.e. smelted) from its raw ore. The most famous ‘slag heaps’ are by the Smeltehytta in Røros – they make for a great climb and photo-point today!

    Transportation & the Winter Road

    There was an enormous need for transportation; from the mine to the Smeltehytta and then onwards to the outside world.

    They did most of the transportation during winter. It was much easier to transport goods on frozen lakes and snow. The Winter Road was one of the busiest routes between Sweden and Røros. The road began in Falun, a mining town in Sweden, and went over lakes, rivers and marshlands to Røros. The trip was demanding; the towns are 400km apart (with the modern highway) and the journey could take over six weeks. If the weather was good, the sledge could travel up to 40km a day.

    The transport was done using horses and sledges, and hundreds of horses could be queuing in Røros or one of the Smeltehytta at any one time. Sledges are much easier to pull in winter.

    Because it was such a busy road, many farms and inns were established. They catered to the needs of drivers so both man and horse could find shelter and food. Along the Winter Road is a stretch of farms or inns called Saether, Holla, Korssjøen and Sevatdalen, all typical examples of wayward inns or farms.

    Today the journey takes 5.5 hours in a car. The highway mostly follows the old Winter Road.

    Modernisation of the Mining Process

    From the 1880s, Røros Kobberverk made great investments in modernising the mining process and introducing new technology. By the end of the 1800s, Røros Kobberverks was among the best mines in Europe.

    From the mid-19th century, the process of digging out the rock in the mine improved. Dynamite became commonly used from 1870 onwards. Drilling machines came into use at the end of the 19th century. Electricity came to the mines from 1897 onwards.

    Improvements were made to the smelting process using the Bessemer method, under Frenchman Mahne’s patent. Before the introduction of this process, the smelting process took many days.

    The smelting of copper was eventually centralised at the main plant in Røros and activity at the other Smeltehytta’s discontinued. Sadly the main Smeltehytta at Røros was affected by fires in 1888 and 1953 before burning down in 1975. The building has since been restored.

    A new road network was also improved during the 1800s. In 1877, the Røros Railway was completed and became of vital importance for transportation to and from the copper works.

    20th Century Decline

    The 20th century brought many challenges to Røros Kobberverk. After World War I, work came to a standstill. When it resumed, it was being subsidised by the state. Production continued during World War II, but the smelting plant had stopped until 1946.

    Immediately after the war, work was stable. A massive search for minerals was conducted from the air in 1959. The main mine, Olavsgruva, closed in 1972 and efforts were made on deposits at Lergruvbakken where zinc and copper were mined. The cost of zinc and copper was rising, and this was good for the company.

    However, in the late 1970s prices dropped and large losses began to hit Røros Kobberverk. In 1977, the Board of Røros Kobberverk found it necessary to submit a notice of bankruptcy. After 333 years of mining activity, Røros Kobberverk ended its operations. At that point, it was Norway’s oldest company.

    During its operation, a total of 110,000 tons of copper and 525,000 tons of pyrites was produced.

    UNESCO World Heritage

    Røros was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1980. In 2010, the listing was expanded to include the Circumference.

    Here’s the reasoning:

    Røros Mining Town and Circumference is linked to the copper mines, established in the 17th century and exploited for 333 years until 1977. The site comprises the town and its industrial-rural cultural landscapes; Femundshytta, a smelter, and the Winter Transport Route. Røros contained about 2000 wooden one and two-storey houses and a smelting cabin. Many of these buildings have preserved their blackened wooden facades, giving the town a medieval appearance. Surrounded by a buffer zone, coincident with the area of privileges (the Circumference) granted to the mining enterprise by the Danish-Norwegian Crown, the property illustrates the establishment of a lasting culture based on copper mining in a remote region and harsh climate.

    “Røros is a unique mining town built exclusively of wood. The town has for 333 years been a melting pot of cultures and influences from Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Trondheim and the surrounding district. This has resulted in a wooden house environment, which represents much of Norway’s finest traditions, and is unique in our country’s industrial, social, cultural and architectural areas. The mining town of Røros and its surroundings is a characteristic example of a special traditional style of wood architecture creating a unique town 600 metres above sea level.”

    The Mines Today: What Can I See?

    With all this talk of mining, you must want to visit one by now! Here’s the modern-day practical info for what’s left and what you can see.

    Mines to Visit

    There is only one mine you can visit the inside of. That’s the Olavsgruva mine; it was in operation from 1936 to 1972. You have to visit with a guided tour.

    Click here to visit the Olavsgruva Website.

    Around Olavsgruva is a mining area where you can see the remains of other mines. Most need a short walk or hike to get there, though. I’ve marked them on the map. They are explained in detail with images on the Røros website (click here).

    Today most mines are filled with water and not accessible to visitors. Some ruins can be seen, and most require a hike to get there.

    Here’s my somewhat complete list of the mines you can hike to or easily see. I say ‘somewhat’ because I found information online to be confusing and sometimes contradictory.

    The Mines

    • Killingdal Mine. This mine was in operation from 1674 to 1986. This was one of the largest in Røros: 2.6 million tonnes of ore were extracted here. It reached a depth of 1,446m – making it one of Northern Europe’s deepest mines. It is filled with water and closed, but the area above ground is partially open. The Killingdal Fjellhotel is partly in the old crew barracks.
    • Nordgruvefeltet. This was a mining area where up to a dozen mines used to be. They are in ruins today (see this photo of one of the mines). I’ve marked the area on the map. Click here to view a Wiki page about the area (in Norwegian). This is the area where you’ll find Kongens Gruve, the most ‘in-tact’ mine in the area. You can see the walls of the old larger building and the foundations of the hoisting system. It’s marked on the map. The area does have road access, but the remains are only accessible by hiking. Click here to view images of the mining area. The Roros website has a map of the ruins. They are all in the mountains, so you have to hike here. Click here to view the map.

    Surviving Smeltehytta

    Sadly, most are in ruins today. The Røros website has a list and map of the Smeltehytta, but only in Norwegian. Here’s a mostly complete list of the Smeltehytta’s you can see in English. I say mostly complete because information online is tricky when it comes to the question: Can I go here today?

    • Eidet Smelter. This Smetehytta operated from 1834 to 1887. It was demolished in 1891 and only parts of the furnace are standing. The furnace is the best-preserved furnace left, though, so that’s something! It is considered one of the most important technical artefacts in Trøndelag and the only of its kind in Europe. Click here to visit a website about it.
    • Drågas Smelter. The remains today are a roadside stop at Hyttefossen in Ålen. You can park right at the site, but most of the remains some kind of hike. Eidet Smelter is a continuation of Drågas Smelter and in the same area.
    • Tolga Smelter. Tolga Smelter is one of the longest lasting Smeltehytta’s, in operation from 1670-1871. Today it’s the Malmplassen Gjestgård – most of the buildings are gone. The whole town of Tolga is a cute little mining town and worth visiting!
    • Femund Smelter. This smelter operated from 1743 until 1822, and today you can drive up to it. It is even a place where you can spend the night! Click here to learn about the smelter and click here to learn about spending the night. Here’s some info about a hike in the area.

    The best Smeltehytta to visit is the one in Røros. Today it is the main museum for the history of mining and the UNESCO area.

     

    Further Exploration

    That’s about it for the history of Røros. I know this was a long article; there’s just so much to talk about.

    I’m writing additional articles about Røros – mostly a walking guide and guide to the museum. There’s so much to say about this town.

    Have you been to Røros? Let me know in the comments! If you have any additional info or changes you want me to make to this article, please mention them below. This blog grows with your support.

    RØros Travel Guide
    Norway Travel Guide