The history of Hammerfest is incredibly interesting, and I always get excited explaining it to groups. Who would’ve thought that such a small town could have such a varied and complex history? Anyway, here’s the history of Hammerfest.
Ancient Times
Many gravesites dating back to the Stone Age can be found in the area around Hammerfest. In Leirbukt a boulder was found that had a 2,500-year-old rock carving representing a boat and three moose. Near the highway is a collection of stones called Stalloen that was a Sami sacrificial site in pre-Christian times. So people have lived here for hundreds of years, but Hammerfest didn’t gain prominence until it became an official market town.
Hammerfest Gets Market Status
From ancient times Hammerfest was known as a central fishing village, and it was also central to hunting in the Arctic. The first church was built in 1684, and at around that time, the population was 60. Hammerfest lost its trading right by King Frederick V of Denmark-Norway, who wanted all trade to come out of Bergen. Because of this, Russia began to ship grain to Hammerfest as part of the Pomor Trade.
In 1789 Hammerfest was given market town rights by royal decree of Christian VII of Denmark-Norway, who was trying to establish new market towns in the Arctic after the collapse of Bergen’s trading monopoly. This makes Hammerfest, together with Vardø, the oldest town in Northern Norway.
he reason Hammerfest was granted status is due to its strategic position – Hammerfest has long been an important way station for shipping, fishing and Arctic hunting.
Throughout the 19th century, Hammerfest grew as a major trading port thanks to the Russian trade. The ladies wore the finest Paris fashions, while the men learned how to hunt in the Arctic from the Russians. Polar sea explorations began in the late 18th century, and at the beginning of the 20th century Hammerfest was regarded as the ‘Polar Capital of Norway’. Several major powers set up consulates in Hammerfest, including Russia, England, Holland, France, Hamburg and the United States.
Napoleonic Wars
Hammerfest was not spared during the Napoleonic Wars. When Denmark-Norway chose the side of France, the UK saw Hammerfest as a target due to its status as one of the main centres of commerce and transportation in the Arctic. The town was attacked on 22 July 1809 – Hammerfest’s two-cannon batteries and the British warships with a total of 32 cannons made for a surprisingly intense battle that only ended when Hammerfest ran out of gunpowder. Most of the town was able to flee, but the British raided the area over eight days, including taking the church donation box and some of the church’s silver.
Great Fire of 1890
Hammerfest was struck by a fire in 1890 which started at the bakery and wiped out almost half of the houses in town. After the fire, Hammerfest received donations and humanitarian assistance from across the world, with the biggest single donor being Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany. The Kaiser had personally visited the town several times on his yacht and had great affection for the small northern settlement.
Electric Street Lights
In 1891, Hammerfest became the first urban settlement in Northern Europe to get electrical street lights. The invention was brought by two of the town’s merchants who had seen it demonstrated at a fair in Paris.
Hammerfest in 1890Hammerfest street in 1920Hammerfest in 1920Hammerfest 1938
World War II
After their victory in the Norwegian Campaign, the Germans soon fortified Hammerfest and used it as a major base. The importance of Hammerfest to the Germans increased dramatically after they invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. The occupiers installed three coastal batteries in and around Hammerfest, and the main U-boat base for Finnmark was located here. It was central to the vessels attacking the Allied supply convoys to Russia.
Hammerfest was an important base during the Second World War. The Germans occupied the town and used it as a major base after invading the Soviet Union in 1941. The main German U-boat base in the county of Finnmark was in Hammerfest, and the garrison was protected by 4,000 mines and numerous anti-aircraft guns. The garrison in Hammerfest was also protected by around 4,000 mines and numerous anti-aircraft guns.
The first time Hammerfest was bombed by the Soviets was on 14 February 1944, doing little damage to the town. The Soviets bombed a second time on 29 August 1944, and this did significantly more damage to the buildings and infrastructure, and two local transport ships were sunk.
German soldiers in Hammerfest
The population was forcibly evacuated by the Germans in the autumn of 1944 after the Soviet offensive was pushing into Norway. Hammerfest was then looted and burned to the ground by the Germans, and by 10 February 1945 the town was completely destroyed.
The only building remaining was the chapel. Mines and munitions left over from WWII are still being found and disposed of in the Hammerfest area.
Hammerfest saw massive growth in the post-war years, partly from people moving to the city after abandoning their smaller villages. The fishing industry also became important in Hammerfest.
Chapel in 1946
Liked reading about the history of Hammerfest? Click here to read about what Hammerfest is like today.
Hammerfest in 1946Hurtigruten M/S Midnatsol in HammerfestHammerfest in 1960
Tromsø is a cool city, in every sense of the word. It is the largest city in Northern Norway and is also one of the first settlements in the far north by Norwegians. Sami and Norwegian populations have lived alongside one another here for a thousand years, and in the last few centuries, the town has been built up as an important Arctic port. Here’s the history of Tromsø – everything you need to know before you go!
Early History
It’s believed that the area around Tromsø has been inhabited since the end of the Ice Age. The area around Tromsø became ice-free around 10,500 years ago. The area was first inhabited by the Sami people, and traces of Sami settlement can be found in the fjord areas around the city. At some point, Norwegians also settled in the area. Archaeological excavations have taken place at nearby Tønsvika, and they have turned up artefacts and remains of buildings that are believed to be up to 10,000 years old.
During the Middle Ages, both Sami and Norwegian people lived here. Perhaps the earliest resident we know about is Ottar, the Viking traveller we met in Finnsnes (if travelling northbound on Hurtigruten). As mentioned in Finnsnes, Ottar lived somewhere in Troms, and one of the possibilities is near present-day Tromsø. He described himself as living “furthest to the north of all Norwegians” with areas north of this being populated by the Sami. Tromsø’s location correlates with this; Icelandic sources from the 12th-century state that the fjord ‘Malangen’ near Tromsø was a border between the Norse and Sami settlements, though there were some living on either side of the border. Both Norse and Sami Iron Age remains have been found on Kvaløya, the neighbouring island to Tromsø.
The name Tromsø is a bit of a mystery; one theory suggests that ‘Troms’ derives from the old name of the island as several islands and rivers have the same name, which may derive from the word ‘straumr’ which means a strong stream. Another theory is that Tromsø was originally called ‘Store Tromsøya’ due to a characteristic mountain known as ‘Tromma’ (the Drum). The mountains name in Sami, Rumbbučohkka, is identical in meaning, and it is said to have been a sacred mountain for the Sami in pre-Christian times. The Sami name for the island is Romsa, which is assumed to be a loan word from Norse. The ‘ø’ at the end is an Old Norse (and present-day Danish) word for ‘island’ (today in Norway we say ‘Øy’ for island).
The first church of Tromsø
The first church was built on Tromsøya island (the island where Tromsø is today) in 1252 and was believed to be commissioned by King Håkon Håkonsson, and the first time Tromsø is mentioned in historical documents is in The Saga of Håkon Håkonsson. It was called “The Church of Saint Mary in Troms near the heathens”, which just rolls off the tongue and refers to the Sami people, who followed their religion that wasn’t exactly in line with the new Norwegian Catholic religion. At the time, it was the northernmost church in the world. King Håkon also commissioned the building of a turf rampart called Skansen to protect the island against attacks from the Karelians (from Karelia, an area between the White Sea and the Gulf of Finland) and Russia. Today no traces of the original church remain (it was a simple wooden building), though it may have been built where the present-day Tromsø Cathedral is. Skansen still exists in the form of a grass mound with a diameter of 50 metres, and it’s visible near the Polar Museum.
While Tromsø didn’t develop into a proper town for another 500 years, it did become a settlement and meeting place. Few people did live here, and because of the church, more people from further away travelled to worship at Tromsø. Back then it was compulsory, and if you didn’t show up to church, you’d receive a fine or imprisonment. So, while Tromsø didn’t have a large population, it became a local meeting place for isolated communities in the area.
Tromsø was also an important location for Norway when considering the proximity to Russia. Originally, the border extended towards the Lyngen Alps, and the state of Novgorod in Russia was able to tax the Sami up until this point. Norway was also able to tax the Sami as far east as the Kola Peninsula. So, the Sami people had to pay taxes to both states if they lived in that area. Sometimes even the Swedes and Finns would try to claim tax from the Sami, depending on where they lived! During the next 500 years, Norway’s border with Russia and Norwegian settlement would extend east towards Varanger, near Kirkenes, making Tromsø lose its status as a ‘frontier town’.
Tromsø Begins to Emerge
While Tromsø wasn’t really a town until the 18th century, there is evidence of people living here (besides the first church). Back then, if someone living as far north as Tromsø wanted to trade, they had to travel to Vågan in Lofoten or to Bergen in the south-west. The first trader was mentioned as coming from Tromsø in 1536 when they had travelled south to conduct trade. It’s believed it was the priests of the church that were the ones making the trip to Vågån to trade; it was common back then for the priests to also be merchants. We also know people were living here in the early 17th century, as Tromsø (like many other places in Northern Norway) conducted witchcraft trials, and three people were burned at the stake. Then, in the early 18th century, a new church was built to replace the old one.
Settling the north
During the 17th century, Denmark-Norway was solidifying its claim to the northern coast of Scandinavia, and Skansen was reinforced at Tromsø. Then, despite being home to only around 80 people, in 1794 Tromsø was issued a city charter by King Christian VII. This coincided with the abolition of Bergen’s centuries-old monopoly on the trade of cod. Bergen lost its trading privileges in 1789, and the people in Northern Norway were now free to trade with whoever they wanted. Hammerfest and Vardø were the first towns to get city status, but Norway wanted a third city in the North, and a debate had arisen as to where it would be. Candidates were Gibostad near Finnsnes and Gausvik near Harstad, but in the end, Tromsø was the city that won.
The development and growth of Tromsø wasn’t immediate; in 1807 the population was only 100. And even though a new church had been completed in 1803, the present-day Elverhøy Church (it was relocated in 1861) and in 1804 the Diocese of Hålogaland was created and headquartered in Tromsø. The town was met with hard times during the Napoleonic Wars; in 1812 the town was attacked by English forces. In the Battle of Pølsehamna, the small Danish-Norwegian garrison set itself so strongly to counter that the English didn’t dare to enter the city; the day they left, the 2nd of August 1812, is still celebrated as an important anniversary in the Danish Naval Defence.
The new Tromsø church after it was completed in 1803The church was moved in 1864 to become the Elverhøy Church
Eventually, Tromsø began to develop as a large city. This is largely thanks to two things: The Pomor Trade and Arctic Hunting.
The Pomor Trade
During the 19th century, the Pomor Trade with Russia became increasingly popular. Trade with Russia had begun in 1725, while Bergen still had the trading monopoly, and Tromsø (before it got city rights) was the starting point for the trading routes eastwards and became one of the most important Pomor Trade Centres in the north. Pomor Trade continued until the Russian Revolution in 1917.
Arctic Hunting
Arctic hunting started around 1820 with expeditions to Svalbard, Greenland, and even as far west as Canada. By 1850, Tromsø had developed into a major centre of Arctic hunting, overtaking the former centre Hammerfest. Tromsø had direct trading links with Arkhangelsk, Bordeaux, and Central Europe. The trade of Arctic goods, whether it be hides, skins, bones or food, accelerated the development of the town and the entire harbour area on the east side of the island was developed as a continuous urban area of piers and residential houses with large gardens. Some of these buildings remain, especially the mansions on Sjøgata and Skippergata.
Tromsø also became an important departure point from which many Arctic expeditions originated. Explorers like Roald Amundsen, Umberto Nobile and Fritjof Nansen made use of the know-how in Tromsø on the conditions in the Arctic and often recruited their crews in the city.
Tromsø Grows into a City
Just 10 years after Arctic hunting had started, Tromsø’s population had risen from a little over 100 to 1,200. Land on the island was sold off so the locals could develop country houses and farmsteads; present-day Hope, Nøysomheden, Charlottenlund and Sommerlyst are the names of such old country estates. Sjøgata (Sea Street) was developed as the main street, while Storgata (Big Street) was a back alley with more modern buildings.
The increase in trade with other countries, the influx of foreigners and visiting summer tourists introduced new trends among local people. Furniture from Europe, fashions, entertainment and socialising helped develop the town into a cultural hub. Travelling associations brought literature, music, the circus and theatre to the town. Special clubs formed for French, German and Russian language speakers.
A travel guide from 1841 says:
‘No other place in the far north has impressed as us much as Tromsø. The attraction is not its large population but rather to experience its bustling commerce, its lively company, and its rapid rise; to put it another way – the young and invigorating life that is emerging in this booming town.’
Paris of the North
Tromsø quickly developed the nickname ‘The Paris of the North’. How this nickname came to be is uncertain, but it is generally assumed that people in Tromsø appeared to be far more sophisticated than what visitors from the south were expecting. The women were often dressed in the finest clothing, the locals had very good formation and language skills, and there was a strong culture in Tromsø. All of this was thanks to the large amount of money that was coming in from the fish and Arctic trade. Also, the people in Tromsø were trading directly with Europe and not going through a trade house such as the one in Oslo. Several places in Tromsø have French names because of these strong trading links.
The commercial and cultural development of Tromsø continued, and in 1838 the postal ship ‘Prinds Gustav’ began sailing to Tromsø during the summer route from Trondheim. In 1848, the teacher training college moved from Trondenes (near Harstad) to Tromsø with part of its mission being to educate Sami scholars – there was a quote ensuring the Sami gained access. The same year, the Tromsø Shipyard was established. In 1847, a local ferry began sailing from Tromsø to the outlying villages. Tromsø Cathedral was built in 1861 and Tromsø Museum opened in 1872; the same year the first railway planning committee met to discuss building a rail network. Tromsø still does not have a rail network. Mack Brewery was founded in 1877.
By 1890, the population had increased to 6,000. In 1893, the first Hurtigruten ship called at Tromsø. At the start of the 1900s, better quays and breakwaters were built, providing safer facilities for fishing boats and steamships. By this time, almost all of Tromsø island had been cleared for housing or building, so neighbouring municipalities were swallowed up to become Tromsø. Today, Tromsø is one of the largest municipalities in Norway by area.
World War II
When Germany invaded Norway in 1940, Tromsø briefly served as the seat of the Norwegian Government while King Haakon VII and the government hide out here. They left Tromsø with the cruiser Devonshire on 7 June 1940 and would not return to Norway after the war.
The Battleship TirpitzTirpitz as it can be seen today
Tromsø was an important base for the Germans throughout the war, and the city escaped the war unscathed. The most dramatic event to happen in Tromsø throughout the war involves the Tirpitz. The German Battleship Tirpitz was sunk by RAF Avro Lancaster during Operation Catechism off Tromsøya Island on 12 November 1944, killing close to 1,000 German soldiers. The Tirpitz was the largest German battleship ever built. It still lies off the coast and is visible during low tide.
Prisoners of War
“South Point”, which was established in 1941 for political prisoners. The first prisoners were male Jews from Tromsø. There were around 120 men in the camp. The second camp was “Krøkebaersletta”, which was a camp for political prisoners who had participated in military resistance. The prisoners here were subject to terrible treatment. On 20 October 1943, eight prisoners were sentenced to death and executed. The number of prisoners at any one time was around 250, though 2,500 prisoners passed through here on their way to larger camps. The third camp was “Isrenna”, established in 1942 for Russian prisoners of war. After the war, both Krøkebaersletta and Isrenna were used as prison camps for traitors and members of the Gestapo.
During the forced evacuation of Northern Norway, which was being devastated due to the Germans ‘scorched earth’ policy, Tromsø received 7381 evacuees from the area. Additionally, 6000 Germans came to Tromsø after leaving Finland; this brought the total number of German soldiers in Tromsø at the end of the ear to 14,000. At the end of the war, more refugees from Northern Norway went to Tromsø and stayed there; resulting in a huge boom in the population.
Post-War Growth
Expansion after World War II was rapid. More municipalities merged with Tromsø, tripling the population. Overall, population growth has been strong compared to many places in the north, with the population growing by more than 1,000 every year even today.
The rapid growth led to many areas being overlooked, and Tromsø became a run-down city. Many materials and money were being sent elsewhere in Northern Norway to try and rebuild destroyed towns. This lack in care led to two major fires in Tromsø in 1948 and 1969, so while Tromsø was one of the towns saved from destruction during the war, many of the pre-war buildings were destroyed by fire.
Throughout the 1960s Tromsø got many new structures. In 1960, the Tromsdalen bridge was built, connecting the island to the mainland; in 1961, the cable car opened. The Tromsø Airport and famous Arctic Cathedral were completed in 1964, and then in 1972, the University of Tromsø was opened. The local teachers college and the museum were incorporated into the University. Today, the University is the third largest in the country.
In the 1990s, an underwater bridge was built connecting the island to the mainland. The Norwegian Polar Institute was moved to Tromsø from Oslo in 1998.
Trondheim is one of Norway’s most important historic cities. The history of Trondheim is like reading from the Norse sagas. It was inhabited during the Viking Age and was chosen as the place where the Vikings, who were raised in England under Catholicism, would land in an attempt to Christianise the pagan Norwegians. There are two Olavs accredited with this – who you’ll learn about below – and today one of them is buried under Nidaros Cathedral, one of Norway’s most important churches. After suffering fire after fire, the city became less important, but today it is noted for its prestigious University and fascinating town centre.
Here’s my summary of the history of Trondheim: everything you need to know before you go.
The pre-history of Trondheim
The history of Trondheim begins thousands of years ago. People have lived here since the BCs, as evidenced by the 300+ rock carvings that have been found in the area. They depict not just the animals of the region (elk, red deer, halibut, salmon, etc), but also show people gathering, hunting and fishing.
Before Trondheim was officially founded, the area was known as Øretinget. An Øretinget is an assembly for representatives from each reason, who would meet to award legal judgements and pass laws. It eventually developed into an assembly where the King of Norway was proclaimed, and it’s believed that Harald Fairhair was proclaimed at this assembly.
The early years & the battle for Christianity
Olav Tryggvason
Trondheim was officially founded in the year 997 by Olav Tryggvason (960s-1000), a Viking King who had returned from England to Christianise Norway. He established Nidaros, as the town was called, on the edge of the river Nid, which twists around the peninsula before emptying into the fjord.
Olav’s goal was to resist and Christianise the pagans, which was the main religion at the time. While he did find some success, he was killed in the Battle of Svolder in 1000.
Shortly after Olav Tryggvason’s death, another Olav decided to become king of Norway. A descendent of the first King Harald Fairhair, Olav Haraldsson had been a Viking since the age of 12, travelling throughout Northern Europe. He returned to Norway in 1015 to establish himself as the King in Trondheim. To cement this title, he built himself a wooden church, St. Clemens, shortly after.
Olav II also wanted to Christianise Norway, but he had a slightly different approach than Olav I. His approach was to travel to the small villages, meet the locals, and tell them to become Christian or he’ll kill them. This brutal plan was effective; once a village knew that Olav II was visiting, they’d quickly build a Christian church over their old pagan worshipping site. Many of these churches are stave churches: Catholic wooden churches with pagan motifs on them.
Eventually, and perhaps unsurprisingly, Olav II’s methods made some wealthy pagans angry. Olav was forced to flee to Russia in 1028 but decided to come back to Trondheim the following year. As he was making his return, he was met by the angry pagans in Stiklestad (95km/51 miles away), who killed him in the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030.
Battle of Stiklestad 1030
Olav becomes a saint
After he died, his followers secretly took Olav’s body to Trondheim and buried him somewhere near the present-day Nidaros Cathedral. Strange things began to happen. There was an eclipse of the sun, and a spring came from his grave that was believed to have healing powers. Some of Olav’s blood was placed in a blind man’s eye and the man’s vision was restored.
Several months after this death, Olav’s body was exhumed and his hair, beard and nails were seen to have grown. By this point, Olav had a large following – the Cult of Olav – and this following not only unified the country, but it also Christianised it. While Olav wasn’t around to see it, he had succeeded in Christianising Norway. His casket was placed into Kristkirken (Christ Church) in 1070 and Olav was canonised as the Saint of Norway.
Kristkirken over the layout of the present-day Nidaros CathedralThe evolution of Nidaros Cathedral – Kristkirken is in the red section
Trondheim becomes a religious centre
Trondheim quickly developed as a major religious centre, furthered by the fact that it became the episcopal seat in 1080, and pilgrims from Europe started coming to visit St. Olav’s Casket at Kristkirken, which later became known as Nidaros Cathedral. The church was continuously extended throughout the 12th century, and officially completed in 1320 (it burned down a few years later, though, kickstarting centuries of rebuilding and burning down). The Archbishops Palace was constructed in 1152 as the religious and political centre of the Kingdom of Norway, which not only included Norway but also the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Isle of Man, Iceland and Greenland.
The Norwegian Civil War
A major civil war was fought in Norway throughout most of the 12th century over the rightful heir to the throne. King Sverre Sigurdsson (1150-1202), who believed he was the rightful heir to the throne, built himself a castle and fortress just outside Trondheim called Zion – today it is known as Sverresborg and is part of the open-air museum (click here to view their website). The civil war ended when King Håkon Håkonsson (1204-63) became king in 1217 at the age of 13. He moved his seat to Bergen, making it the new capital of Norway. Trondheim began a period of stagnation.
The West Front of Nidaros Cathedral in 1666
The Reformation & Danish Union
While Norway had not been a truly independent country since 1380 due to the Kalmar Union, it was the Reformation in 1536/7 that reconfirmed Norway as a Danish territory under Danish rule. Norway, a catholic country at the time, was forced to convert to the Lutheran (Protestant) religion after the Danish king adopted the doctrine of Lutheran. Many old Catholic churches were torn down to make way for new Lutheran churches, and many historic buildings were left untouched, eventually deteriorating into ruin. As Nidaros Cathedral and the Archbishops were symbols of the Catholic religion, the Danes prevented any repairs done to the cathedral after a major fire, and the Palace was turned into a military base. The last Catholic bishop of Trondheim, Olav Engelbrektsson, fled to the Netherlands. Olav’s casket, as well as most items in the church, were taken by the Danes and melted to be made into coins.
Kristiansten Fort was built to defend Trondheim from the Swedes
The many, many fights with Sweden
The 16th and 17th century in Scandinavian history is typically characterised by the many battles between Denmark/Norway and Sweden. As Trondheim is close to the Swedish border, the town became involved in some of these battles. In the Seven-Year War, which lasted between 1563 and 1570, the Swedish Army entered Trondheim and laid siege to the town for two months. During a new war in the years 1567/58 that was won by Sweden, the country of Trøndelag was ceded to the Swedes, though it was only Swedish territory for several months. The Norwegians built Kristiansten Fortress to defend themselves against the Swedes.
A fire in Bakklandet in the 1960s
Fires of Trondheim
You’ll notice as you walk around that Trondheim has lots of timber buildings. Due to the proximity of forests, the main building material has always been timber. This, of course, means that Trondheim has also caught fire many times. The first major fire was in 1295 when much of the town and the Episcopal Palace was destroyed. In 1328, just 8 years after the 150-year construction of Nidaros Cathedral ended, the church burned down. It had been richly decorated and was regarded as Norway’s finest and most holy palace. A complete restoration was carried out, but a new fire in 1432 caused considerable damage. The town was destroyed by fire in 1531, but at this time the rebuilding was greatly limited. After the Reformation in 1537, the church now lacked importance. Parts of the church were left without a roof and stood in ruins for almost 400 years.
The town plan after the fire of 1681 by Cicignon
The most famous fire is the fire of 1681 when the town once again burned down. This caused the citizens to rethink how they built the town, and the town planner General John Caspar de Cicignon (1625-1696) from Luxembourg was called to Trondheim to redesign the city with fire prevention in mind. He adopted a grid system with wide, open streets and a quadratic layout. It is regarded as the finest example of a Baroque town plan in Norway and is the layout you’ll see today.
Still, it wasn’t fireproof. In 1708, the town was ravaged by fire. Nidaros Cathedral was destroyed – only the stone walls remained. Restoration of the church was only just completed when it was again struck by lightning in 1719. The church was rebuilt once again, but this time in a very simple design; for example, a simple pyramid-shaped roof was constructed over the old tower and the octagonal chancel was crowned by a dome in the Baroque style.
Trondheim in 1898
Several more fires occurred between 1788 and 1842. The street plans changed slightly to try and stop fire jumping, and in 1845 a new rule was introduced that said all buildings had to be built in stone. The locals were surprisingly stubborn about this and insisted on building in wood. They wanted Trondheim to always be a ‘timber town’. After a fire in 1899, they decided that maybe Trondheim should be built in stone. A brick law was enforced.
19th Century Industrial Growth
Trondheim has always been a major industrial centre for timber, mining and brickworks. The first brick factory opened in the 1200s (and yet it took them over 600 years to decide to use it as a building material), and timber factories existed along the river. The modern industry arrived in the 19th century with the construction of a textiles factory near the river in 1843. Between 1842 and 1870 there was considerable economic development in Trondheim; several businesses that used manual labour became industrialised. The towns commercial and industrial enterprises followed the international trends, with considerable development around the time of the First World War and the depression between the wars.
World War II
Like the other major cities in Norway, Trondheim was occupied on the 9th of April 1940 by German forces. The heavy cruiser ‘Admiral Hipper’ and four destroyers were anchored in the harbour, and 1,700 German troops oversaw the occupation. Trondheim was of strategic importance to the Germans; it was considered the ‘gateway’ to Northern Norway and the Trondheimsfjord provided a haven for German ships preparing to attack the Allied convoys heading for Murmansk. The Germans built U-boat pens along the harbour, a major defence fort at Munkholmen, and coastal forts along the fjord.
Resistance groups and martial law
A strong resistance group was active in Trondheim, working with the British via secret radio transmission and distributing illegal newspapers. Their acts of resistance eventually angered the German Reichskommissar Josef Terboven, who decided to implement martial law in the city. He arrived in Trondheim on the 5th of October 1942, and by the 6th of October there were signed all over the city notifying citizens of the ‘martial law’. The conditions for martial law included a curfew from 8pm to 5am, a general prohibition against the use of railroads for transport, and a prohibition against gatherings. Violations were to be punished with no less than 10 years’ imprisonment at hard labour camps or with capital punishment. 13,000 police officers were mobilised to enforce the law.
Terboven announced to the civilians from the town square that 10 prominent citizens of Trondheim had been executed as ‘atonement sacrifices’. A well-known concentration camp was situated just north of Trondheim, called Falstad, and nearby was the Falstadskogen (Falstad Woods), which were known as a killing ground. When Terboven made the announcement, eight of the citizens hadn’t been executed yet. Rather, they were being held at the Gestapo Headquarters at Misjonhotellet and had heard the announcement of their deaths. They were taken to Falstadskogen, blindfolded, and placed two by two in a mass grave. They were shot at short range by a firing squad of 10.
In the following two days, an additional 24 residents were arrested and executed. A dozen or so Jewish men were arrested, 1,434 properties were raided, and 93 Norwegian individuals were arrested. Everyone killed or arrested had some connection to the Norwegian resistance or was just a well-liked member of society whose arrest was to ‘send a message’. Martial law was lifted on the 12th of October once Terboven was confident he had stopped the resistance. However, these measures did little to stop the Norwegians. Rather, they only grew stronger, more organised and coordinated.
A memorial at Falstadskogen
The Jewish population of Trondheim
There was intense persecution of the Trondheim Jewish population that began at the local synagogue before spreading throughout the rest of the country. The Trondheim Synagogue was confiscated in April 1942, and in autumn that year Ernst Flesch, a ruthless anti-Semite, had become the commander of the Security Service for Trondheim. By summer 1942, he had taken over almost all business owned by Jews and had arrested the owners. The arrested and executed another four Jews for listening and spreading Norwegian news from London. In October 1942, the remaining Jews were arrested – this was the first city in the country to carry out the mass arrests. By November 1942, all Jews in Trondheim had been arrested and deported, where they would all be killed at a concentration camp, or they were imprisoned in a Norwegian concentration camp. Only a few managed to escape to Sweden.
NTNU Trondheim
Trondheim Today
Today, Trondheim is Norway’s third-largest city and is often referred to as the ‘technology capital’ of the country. This can be attributed to the large number of start-up companies that can be found in the city, but also because of the university the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). Universities came to Norway late due to the Danish union (if you wanted an education back then, you had to go to Copenhagen). The first college in Trondheim was founded in 1760 as the ‘Det. Kgl. Norske Videnskabers Selskab’, or the Royal Scientific Society. The Norwegian Technical College opened in 1910. Throughout the 20th century, colleges for Arts and Sciences and Medicine opened.
NTNU University
In 1996, all of these colleges were brought together and became NTNU. NTNU has a professional basis in education and research, social sciences, humanistic sciences, scientific objects, medicine, architecture and art.
There are approximately 36,000 university or college students in Trondheim. The students are particularly known for their volunteer work, and the student society is run by more than 1,200 volunteers. NTNU is also known for closely collaborating with industries and has some of the closest industrial links in the world. NTNU is famous for its research, and there are 4,500 scientific staff and at any time the university is running more than 2000 research projects. In 2017, NTNU was ranked first in the world for universities with corporate links. Many of its Master and PhD programmes are in English, and NTNU offers a free Norwegian language course online if you are interested in learning.
In 2014, Professors May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser at NTNU were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries of how the brain creates a map of space around us to navigate complex medical surroundings. They share the award with John O’Keefe of the University College London.
Scientific Institutions
St. Olav’s Hospital is one of the major university hospitals in the country. The hospital has 8,69 employees and treats 725,000 patients every year. It specialises in back injuries and neuroscience.
There are several scientific organisations in Trondheim. One of them is SINTEF, the largest independent research organisation in Scandinavia. Of their 1,800 employees, 1,300 of them are located in Trondheim. The Geological Survey of Norway is also located in Trondheim and is a major geoscientific institution with 220 employees of which 70% are scientists.
Trondheim is regarded as the cross-country ski capital of Norway due to the fact its produced so many Olympians. The Granåsen Ski Centre is a major Nordic skiing venue that regularly hosts competitions. Trondheim is also known for its football club Rosenborg, which has won the Norwegian Premier League 26 times between 1967 and 2018 and has reached the UEFA Champions League group stage 12 times.
The history of Oslo is truly fascinating. While today the city is very modern and there may seem like there are few traces of its beginnings, there are hints of history everywhere.
Here’s my summarised history of Oslo!
Humble Beginnings
Oslo is one of the oldest places in Norway; the area around the Oslofjord has been inhabited since the last ice age due to its rich agricultural land. The oldest settlements date back to the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. Historically the area was called Viken, which means ‘the bay’.
It’s believed that the Oslofjord was an important place for the Vikings; this is mostly because three Viking ships have been found in the area. These are now on display at the Viking Ship Museum. The first church, St. Clements Church (Klemenskirken), was built in Oslo around the year 1000. Sadly the church is no more; its ruins can be seen in the Middelalderparken just outside the city centre.
Medieval Oslo. Akershus is on the bottom left. The hilly area to the right is Ekeberg.
Oslo wasn’t officially founded until 1049. It was founded by King Harald Hardråde (Harald Hardruler), but it was his son, Olav Kyrre (Olav the Peaceful, who also founded Bergen), who set up a cathedral and a bishopric. Oslo wasn’t where it is today; rather it was founded closer to the region around Ekeberg and where the Barcode is today (the region called Gamle Oslo (Old Oslo) highlights this).
Mariakirken Oslo
Throughout the 12th century, cathedrals and a cathedral school were built around the city. This includes Mariakirken, which would’ve looked similar to the church in Bergen. Sadly, like St. Clements, only its ruins remain.
At the time it was Trondheim that was the capital of Norway. In 1219, the capital moved to Bergen. It wasn’t until 1299 that Oslo got its title as the Capital of Norway.
The Capital of Norway
In 1299, King Håkon V decided to move from Bergen to Oslo, and with that, the capital moved. He cemented the city’s status as the capital when he had the Akershus Fortress built in 1299.
Everything changed in 1350 when the Black Plague came to Oslo. Around half of the town’s population passed away, and the churches began to lose income. This is around the time that the Hanseatic merchants came in to take over trade, and the churches fell into ruins.
The entire country had lost a lot during the Plague, and because of that, it was forced into a Danish union.
Danish Union, Fires, and Kristiania
The Kalmar Union put the three Scandinavian countries together in 1380, and during this time trade in Oslo was dominated by Hanseatic merchants and the town had little going on.
In 1536, the Danish and Norwegian union became a formal coalition, and the capital proper was now Copenhagen – though Oslo remained a symbolic capital. Due to the Reformation, in which Norway converted from Catholic to Lutheran, many of the old churches (most of which were already deteriorated) were destroyed by the Danes to make way for Lutheran churches. There are many ruins of churches in Gamle Oslo (the old town) today.
In 1624, the city changed forever. A massive fire burned for three days, destroying most of the city as it was built in timber. After the fire, King Christian IV of Denmark decided that, rather than rebuilt the old city, he was going to move it and build a whole new city and name it after himself. So, he did. And so Kristiania was born. At the time, it was spelt Christiania, but from 1877 it was spelt Kristiania.
A statue of Christian IV pointing to where he wants Christiania
Inspired by contemporary city planning, Kristiania was laid out in a grid close to Akershus Castle. The architecture of the time was Renaissance, and there are glimpses of this style still visible in the old centre of Kristiania. Akershus Fortress was also modernised and converted into a renaissance castle by Christian IV. All citizens and shops were strongly encouraged to move their businesses and homes to the new city, and they did. Around this time, the lower classes started to settle a little out of the city, near Vaterland and Grønland near the Old Oslo area.
Oslo’s first town hall from 1641
The area of Oslo today called Kvadraturen (the quadrature) is where King Christian IV moved the town. The oldest buildings in Oslo can be found here, including Kristiania’s first town hall and the oldest restaurant, Cafe Engebret.
It wasn’t until the 18th century that Kristiania started to see true growth when the (constant) wars between Denmark and Sweden boosted the town as a major shipbuilding and trading port.
Christiania in 1814. The fortress is visible out on the peninsula.
19th Century Capital & Growth
In 1814, when Norway left the Danish union and was forced into a personal union with Sweden, Kristiania was re-instated as the capital. The 19th century was a period of massive growth for Kristiania; with its status back, several state institutions were established including the Bank of Norway (1828), the Royal Palace (1848) and the Storting (1866). In 1859, many of the surrounding areas were incorporated into Kristiania – including Old Oslo, which at the time was just called Oslo.
Karl Johans Gate 1890
The population increased dramatically in the 19th century – from 10,000 in 1814 to 230,000 in 1900. Finally, Kristiania overtook Bergen in terms of population. There was a spectacular building boom during the end of the 19th century, and many new apartments were built around the city centre.
Akerselva 19th century
Industry also rose dramatically in the 19th century, especially along the Aker River (Akerselva). Various industries were here, but they were primarily timber and fabrics. This is due to the number of waterfalls on the river, which gave power to numerous industry companies in Oslo.
Downtown Oslo (Stortorvet) in 1926
Oslo returns
The city and municipality used the name Kristiania until 1 January 1925, when the name was changed back to Oslo. The reason the name was changed is because, after Norway became completely independent in 1905, the locals thought it was inappropriate to have the capital named after a Danish king.
World War II
During the Second World War, Oslo (like the rest of Norway) was occupied by German forces. Oslo was one of the first cities in Norway to be occupied; on 9 April 1940 the German ships made their way down the Oslofjord, and while the fortress Oscarsborg was able to sink a major warship and delay the occupation long enough for the King and government to escape, the city was occupied later that day.
Parliament with a German sign & Nazi flag flying
During the war, the main headquarters for the Germans was Victoria Terrasse, a beautiful building close to the Royal Palace. It was in this building that officers held the interrogation centre for all prisoners in Oslo, and the place became synonymous with torture and abuse. On occasion, prisoners jumped out of windows to their death while waiting to be interrogated. Allied bombers tried to destroy it twice, but missed and hit civilian targets.
Karl Johans Gate
All ships carrying Jews left for mainland Europe from the Oslofjord, and the German Army executed members of the Norwegian resistance groups at Akershus Fortress. After the war, eight Norwegian traitors who had been tried for war crimes were executed at the fortress, including Vidkun Quisling.
Modern Oslo
Oslo 1971
After the war, Oslo’s City Hall was finished in an area that had previously been a slum. This was also where Aker Brygge was revitalised between 1982 and 1998 and built up as a modern suburb.
Oslo’s postwar absorption of surrounding towns and suburbs gives us the sprawling city we see today. However, despite this growth, it wasn’t until the discovery of the Ekofisk oil field on Norway’s Continental shelf, that the economy of Oslo changed for good. Oslo transformed into one of the world’s wealthiest and liveable cities.
Oslo is the most ethnically diverse city in Norway, with 40% of the population first or second-generation immigrant.
Terrorist attack 2011
In 2011, Oslo was hit by a terrorist attack carried out by a right-wing extremist. A bomb was detonated in the Government quarter, damaging several buildings including the building that houses the Office of the Prime Minister. Eight people were killed in the attack. The terrorist then disguised as a police officer and killed 69 Labour party-affiliated activists on the island Utøya, about 45 minutes out of the city.
On the morning of the 9th of April 1940, Norway awoke to the news that Nazi Germany had invaded. The country remained occupied until the war ended on 8 May 1945. Bergen became one of the most important places for German forces on the west coast. They built forts, bunkers, and took over public buildings. I’ve put together a list of the most important Bergen World War II sites.
The occupation was strategic for the Germans. Norway’s proximity to the United Kingdom was important. Furthermore, the iron ore exports from Narvik meant Germany could produce war materials. The entire coast of Norway became of use for the Germans. It’s easy to see how Norway has a rich war history.
Along with other major cities in Norway, Bergen was occupied on the first day of the German invasion. German warships passed Denmark on the night of the 8th. When the Norwegian fortifications were notified, they began preparations. Forts line the coast around Bergen, but they stood no chance against German ships. The ships came with planes and approximately 1,900 men. The Bergen forts managed to damage one ship, the Koningsberg, but the rest entered the city undamaged.
The locals awoke on the 9th to a German flag flying at the Bergen Fortress. Heavily armed German guards stood outside public buildings. The occupation had been a success.
Sites around Bergen
The Bergen Fortress
The Bergen Fortress was the main headquarters of the German soldiers during the war. Most of the buildings within the fortress served a purpose. The only building they didn’t use was Håkon’s Hall. Additionally, they constructed some of their own.
If you are planning to walk around the fortress, I recommend this excellent guide. It’s available printed at Håkon’s Hall & the Rosenkrantz Tower.
The German Bunker
The German bunker stands next to Håkon’s Hall. It is one of the few remains of German buildings at the fortress. In 1944, there was a large explosion of a freight ship on the harbour. The telephone exchange was destroyed by the explosion. Using 200 Soviet prisoners of war, a new bunker was built to serve as a communications bunker. The concrete can withstand attacks. After the war, Germany gave Norway some funds to tear it down. However, the bunker remains, though covered in green ivy, as a reminder of the war. Today it’s used by the Norwegian Army.
The Explosion of Voodbode
On the 14th of April 1944, a German freight ship docked outside the fortress exploded. The ship, Voorbode, was travelling from Oslo to Kirkenes but stopped in Bergen for repairs. Normally, a ship like this would not be allowed to stop in a major port. It was carrying 124 tonnes of explosives. Due to a lack of proper controls, the ship docked in Bergen.
The explosion occurred early in the morning. A water column several-hundred metres high rose. Following it was sand, mud, stones, iron plates, timber and steel from the ship. The pressure wave swept the harbour, crushing everything in its path. Houses fell apart, brick buildings suffered damage, and windows 2km away smashed. Bergen was declared a disaster area. 4,536 buildings were either damaged or destroyed. 160 people died, 5,000 were injured, and 5,000 became homeless. 4,260 children were forced to evacuate to prevent illness from spreading.
Bergenhus Festningsmuseum
To learn more about the resistance movement during World War II, and everything about the Norwegian army, visit the Bergenhus Festningsmuseum. It is on the edge of Bergenhus near St. Mary’s Church. The exhibition about the resistance movement in Bergen 1940-1945 shows both civilian and military resistance. It demonstrates how the civilians organised against the Nazi Party Nasjonal Samling’s attempts to Nazify Norway.
It also focuses on the military resistance developed from scattered, isolated groups to a large organisation with ties to London. The torture and execution of resistance members was common. Or they were sent to concentration camps in Europe. Despite this, the resistance movement grew stronger until the liberation. The museum has photos, weapons, espionage equipment, sabotage material, film footage, and interviews. Additional exhibitions are:
Women’s contribution to the Norwegian Armed Forces
Newspapers in Bergen during the war
The underground press 1940-1945
Norwegian forces abroad
Norwegian Independent Brigade Group
History of the fortress
Enigma
The best part is – the museum is free!
Sverresborg
Located on a hill behind the Bergen fortress, Sverresborg is a historic fortress. However, the fortress is also interesting when it comes to the Second World War. During WWII, the German occupants established two anti-aircraft batteries in the fortress. After the war, Sverresborg became as an execution site in connection with treason. Seven Germans and one Norwegian war criminal were executed there in 1946. Today, there is no evidence of this, but it’s still worth visiting as it provides excellent views of Bergen.
Sites around Bryggen
Bergen’s UNESCO site Bryggen is the epicentre of local history. The wharf is a trading centre from the 11th century onwards. For a few hundred years it was the home of the German merchants, the Hanseatic League. The locals considered Bryggen German until the end of the 19th century.
After World War II in Bergen, the locals wanted to remove any trace of the city’s German heritage. They planned to get rid of Bryggen. Luckily, a fire led to archaeological excavations which led to the discovery of Bryggen’s rich heritage. Now the wharf is under conservation. We know that Bryggen suffered damage from the explosion, but it was also home to an important resistance group.
Theta Museum
The Theta Museum is an important World War II site in Bergen. It the secret base of a well-known resistance group called the Theta Group. Comprised of a group of young students (aged 19-22) form Bergen, the group had some radio equipment and established contact with London. The Theta group acquired information and then passed it to London. Therefore, they assisted the British Army with the Germans in Norway. They told the British about the movements of the battleship Tirpitz. This led to the British sinking the ship near Tromsø.
They also obtained inside information about the U-boat pens in Laksevåg (see below). The group ended when the Germans discovered their location. Some group members were sent to concentration camps and died. Meanwhile, some fled to Sweden, and some to the United Kingdom. When they returned after the war, they set up their old room to look as it had during the war, and today that room is a museum.
When visiting the museum, you’ll be able to see their equipment, photographs, newspapers, maps, a gun, and more. It’s a little hard to get into the museum. It’s open from May-September on Tuesdays, Saturdays and Sundays from 2pm-4pm. Note that it’s very small; it’s considered to be the smallest museum in Norway! It’s located in the alley Enhjørningsgården.
Shetland Memorial
The Shetland Group (or Shetland Bus) is a group that made a permanent link between Shetland and Norway throughout the Second World War. Operated by small fishing boats and later submarine chasers, it grew to be part of the resistance. The purpose of the group was to transfer agents in and out of Norway. They also provided them with weapons, radios, and other supplies. They would bring out the Norwegians who feared arrest by the Germans.
Just behind the fish market is a statue of Leif Larsen, one of the famous men of the Shetland group. He made 52 trips to Norway and became a highly decorated Allied naval officer in the Second World War.
In the mountains
Rundemanen
Some old German constructions can be found at the top of Rundemanen and nearby Blåmanen. Sadly I can’t find much information on their history.
Fløyen WWII Memorial
If you take a trip to the top of Mt. Fløyen, you’ll notice a World War II memorial just in front of the restaurant. It is in memory of the young people who were members of sports clubs who fell for Norway between 1940 and 1945. You can read about the history of why they have been recognised here: http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMPBBT_World_War_II_Memorial_Bergen_Norway
Sandviksbatteriet
A short walk from the city centre, the Sandviken battery was built between 1895 and 1902 to protect Bergen from possible attacks from the Swedes. The battery formed the ‘inner fortification’ to protect Bergen from attacks from the sea. It was not manned when the Germans arrived in April 1940 and did not take part in the defence of Bergen as the Germans invaded. It was then used by the Germans throughout the war.
Voorbode Anchor
If you hike up Sandviksfjellet, you’ll come across the anchor from the Voorbode, the German freight ship that exploded on the harbour.
Surrounding area
U-boat pen Bruno
When the Germans occupied Norway, they were able to move their u-boats closer to the front and the United Kingdom. One of the submarine pens they built is Bruno, which is located in the suburb of Laksevåg. It has 3 dry boat pens, 3 wet ones, and one that is used for storage. After the Allied landings in France in June 1944, there was a massive expansion of the U-boat base in Bergen.
This led to a massive English air raid on October 1944, involving 150 aircraft. The attack ended in disaster when 193 Norwegians, among them 61 children at a nearby school, were killed. There was another attack on Bruno later that month, but the 244 aircraft could not find the target because of heavy clouds. Instead, parts of Bergen’s city centre were bombed. Today the bunker is used by the Norwegian navy for submarine pens. It’s a little hard to see from the city, but if you take any ferry or head out to the tip of Nordnes of Sandviken, you’ll be able to see it.
Olsvik bunker
Little historical information exists on this bunker, but a sign outside it states that it was used by the Germans during WWII. The bunker is located in the suburb of Olsvik. To get there, take bus 40 towards Olsvik and get off at the stop ‘Olsvikåsen’. From there, it takes 15-20 minutes to talk to the top.
Fjell Fortress
Fjell fortress was the largest German fortress in Norway during the Second World War. Construction began in 1942, and it was completed around July 1943. The fort was designed as being a significant link in the coastal defence of Norway, and it was to stop seaward approach to Bergen.
To mount the main gun turret, it was necessary to dig 17 metres vertically into the mountain, and this was considered a time-consuming task. The main entrance and gun emplacement were constructed as an open ditch, and later covered with concrete, instead of blasting a tunnel into and down in the solid rock. As a result, water entering the tunnel system has been a problem ever since the tunnel was constructed. The work was carried out by prisoners from Eastern Europe and Norwegian prisoners. 25 prisoners died during construction, either from frostbite, exhaustion, or execution.
Fjell Fortress is on top of the Fjedlafjedlet Mountain, in the small town Fjell, in Fjell municipality. You can walk around the impressive labyrinth of roads 10 metres underground. The exhibitions are located in an authentic military construction inside the fortress.
Fjell fortress is located on the island of Sotra. This Nazi coastal battery was rediscovered in 2003. The Nazis established this fortress complex with underground bunkers, barracks, a hospital and storage.
Herdla Museum
Located at the tip of Askøy on a moraine island, you can see both a fighter aircraft from World War II and an intact torpedo battery from the Cold War. Exhibitions are about how the island was formed, how it was used as a German airbase, as well as the areas unique bird life.
The main attraction is the German fighter Yellow-16, which took off from the airbase at Herdla. After 64 years on the seabed, the aircraft was raised and placed at the museum. There are guided tours of the torpedo battery and the tour goes over the Cold War.
Hellen Fort
Hellen Fort is located near Sandviken. It was built between 1895 and 1905 and was used by the Germans during World War II. As the Germans were invading Norway on the 9th of April, they bombed the fortress, killing six Norwegians. Here’s a recent article about a recent memorial for the Norwegians who passed away: https://www.ba.no/nyheter/de-ga-alt-for-norge/s/5-8-52480
Kvarven fort is from the late 1800s. Designed to protect Norway from a potential attack against Sweden, it was never used. During WWII, 33 officers and 279 corporals and privates with an average age of 40 were at the fort. The fort failed to open fire at the first German ships, mistaking them for unarmed merchant ships. When the fort finally opened fire, it only managed to get off a few shots through the fog at two torpedo boats.
The German ships did not retaliate but sent a morse coded message in English saying ‘stop shooting’. The fort went on to shoot the cruiser Konigsberg three times, and the ship barely survived. A few hours later, the Kvarven surrendered. German naval personnel manned the fort for the rest of the war. The fort opened in 1993 as a preserved cultural area, and now it’s a nice place to go hiking.
If you’re coming to Bergen, you have to visit Bryggen. You’ll see ‘Hanseatic League’ everywhere here, but not much information about what it is. The history of the Hanseatic League in Bergen is fascinating. It’s one of my favourite things to talk about.
So, I’ve put together a simplified overview of the Hanseatic League in Bergen. If you want to learn more, there’s ton of information online. There’s also some great books available in the museums.
What is the Hanseatic League?
The Hanseatic League was a commercial co-operation in Europe. The members were merchants from market towns throughout north and central Europe. Most of them lived around the Baltic Sea, where they dominated trade for three centuries.
The word Hanse means ‘convoy’. This word refers to the groups of merchants who would travel between the Hanseatic towns by land or sea.
The Hanseatic League’s common goal was to dominate trade, protect economic interests, gain diplomatic privileges, and establish trading routes.
Bergen: Scandinavia’s First Commercial Town
Bergen is generally regarded as Scandinavia’s largest commercial hub. It was the largest city in Scandinavia until the 17th century, and the largest in Norway until the 19th century.
Bergen became an important trading hub for many reasons. Most importantly, it is in a strategic geographic location. The bay, Vågen, is wide and suited to trading ships. Bergen is roughly halfway between Northern Norway (where the goods came from) and mainland Europe (who wanted the goods). Lastly, Bergen is not far from the Shetland Islands, Faroe Islands and Iceland, who came to Bergen to trade. England is close by, and became Bergen’s first major trading partner.
The Stockfish Trade
Merchants in Bergen traded stockfish from Northern Norway and the islands mentioned above. Stockfish was in demand in Europe because of its longevity and tastiness. Bergen became a good midway point between supply and demand.
They didn’t trade only stockfish. Fish oil, dried herring, sheep and goat skin, cattle hides, butter and whaling and sealing products were also Norwegian exports. Still, stockfish counted for 80-90% of Norwegian exports.
The fishermen from Northern Norway brought stockfish to trade with goods from Europe. Wheat from England was important as it didn’t grow in Northern Norway. Beer, wine and modern equipment was also traded.
With all this going on in Bergen, it’s unsurprising that this got the interest of the Hanseatic League.
The Arrival of the Germans
The first mention of German merchants in Bergen is in 1186. King Sverre, who declared himself king during the Civil War, had taken residence in Bergen. Sverre, recognising the Germans, said:
“We want to thank all the Englishmen who had arrived here, bringing with them wheat and honey, flour or cloth. Also, we want to thank those men who have brought linen or flax, wax or cauldrons. We would also like to mention those who have come from the Orkneys, Shetlands, Faroes, or Iceland – all those who have brought to this country.
The Germans arrive here in large numbers and with large ships. They intend to take away butter and cod to the detriment of the country, and bring in return wine that people go in for buying. Their trade has brought much evil and nothing good.”
King Sverre
It’s clear Sverre wasn’t thrilled with the Germans, and who can blame him. After all, the introduction of wine in Bergen had caused excessive drinking, which then caused fights – some even killing people!
Early German Trade
The Germans started coming to Bergen as the Hanseatic League was growing in Europe. The main ‘hub’ for the Hanseatics was Lubeck. The ‘Lubeckers’ started to recognise the popularity of Bergen as a trading town. Moreover, the Lubeckers had advantages over other merchants as they were well connected. Eventually, they took over the English wheat trading. Also, instead of using Bergen merchants as the middle man, they traded directly with the fishermen. The fishermen became dependent on Hanseatic products. They began to seek out only German merchants.
The Hanseatics Move In
The first Hanseatic merchant began to rent accommodation in Bergen in 1259. Shortly after, another German bought the house. By 1300, Bryggen (the wharf) was dominated by German merchants.
Not only German merchants came to Bergen. German craftsmen came to take advantage of the trade business. Shoemakers from Germany were granted a monopoly of shoemaking. Other craftsmen who came to Bergen included goldsmiths, furriers, tailors, cutters, bakers, and barbers (Fun fact: The German Hanseatics brought the cinnamon and the skills that perfect Bergen’s famous and unique cinnamon bun!).
In 1294, the King of Norway granted merchants from German towns the right to sell freely in Norwegian towns. They were not allowed to sell in rural locations, and could not sail further north than Bergen. Lastly, he declared that Bergen was to be the main place for trade with Northern Norway and the islands. This was good news for the Hanseatic League.
The Hanseatic League is Established
During the start of the 14th century, the Germans became a little bit more organised. They established their area around Bryggen as an official Hanseatic Kontor (office). Bergen is the fourth kontor; the others are Novgorod, Brugge and London.
The royals in Norway didn’t like Bergen becoming a Kontor. They tried to fight against the Kontor having its own laws. The Germans continuously fought back, and it got nasty. For example, in 1311, the Bishop of Bergen said the Germans must pay tax. The Germans refused, boycotted trade, killed the Bishop, 60+ locals, and burned down the monastery. Eventually, they got their way.
The dominance of the Hanseatic League in Bergen settled thanks to the Black Death. The Black Death killed 70% of Bergen’s population. The loss in population saw the trade business shut down. Warehouses were abandoned, and the government and royals lost power. However, Europe still wanted stockfish. The King allowed the Germans to settle in abandoned warehouses along Bryggen.
The authorities tried to govern the Germans, but it became impossible. The Hanseatic League was too powerful and too organised. They also controlled trade, and Norway needed supplies coming in. Against the wishes of the Norwegians, the Hanseatic League chased out Dutch and English merchants. 1,000 Hanseatic merchants lived in Bryggen, which became their own city within Bergen.
Organisation on Bryggen
German merchants owned firms, located inside the tenements (long rows of buildings) on Bryggen. Each tenement had up to 15 firms inside. The Germans owned the building but not the land.
Each firm had storerooms, sleeping quarters, living rooms and workshops. Each tenement had a quay at the front, a crane, a private passage along the tenement, and a kitchen at the back.
The firm had a manager, while the owner lived in Germany. The manager oversaw the capital and used it to pay for the stockfish. The manager kept a small part of the profit. The goal was to save enough money to buy a firm, go back to Germany, and live very comfortably.
The Credit System
The Hanseatic League operated a complicated trade system, often down through credit. The managers oversaw the credit system. They were so meticulous and careful with paperwork. The museum in Bergen has all the paperwork showing every manager and every transaction back to the 16th century.
The German merchants needed to secure a regular flow of stockfish from North Norway. They paid the fishermen (in forms of wheat and goods from Europe) in advance. Money was never used on Bryggen. The fisherman was then tied to the German through this kind of debt. If the fisherman brought less stockfish, they could make up for it the next year.
The fishermen and the firms had a good relationship. They trusted each other, and would work together for many generations. While the Hanseatics were not popular in Bergen, they were popular in Northern Norway.
The Hanseatic League didn’t only rely on Northern Norway. They traded with Iceland, the Faroes, Shetland for goods from the north. In Norway, they traded with ecclesiastical institutions, local magnates and clergymen. Even the Crown ended up working with the Hanseatic League.
Social Life, Law & Order
Governing the Hanseatic League on Bryggen took place in the Merchants House. The building stood in the middle of Bryggen; today it’s where the wooden and brick buildings meet. Six merchants sat on the council, settling legal matters in cooperation with the council in Lubeck. If someone wanted to appeal, they’d have to go to the Hanseatic Court in Lubeck.
St. Mary’s Church was the Hanseatic parish church. In 1408, the church was formally assigned to the Hanseatics by the Bishop of Bergen. It remained theirs until 1766. The Hanseatic League loved the church. They mention the church in their wills, donated artwork, and were often buried outside the church.
The End of the Hanseatic League
The reasons why the Hanseatic League continued to succeed on Bryggen varies. Firstly, Norway was a poor country with few skilled merchants. The Germans were very skilled in the fish trade and had great knowledge of the European markets. They were useful to the Norwegian economy. Importantly, the King didn’t want to shut them down until the Norwegians had the resources and strength to export the fish themselves. Secondly, the North Norwegians fought to keep the Hanseatic League operating. As late as 1680, they were saying that the Hanseatic League ending in Bryggen would be a disaster. To further complicate things, the 16th and 17th centuries saw many wars between Denmark-Norway and Sweden. Whenever war trade became complicated, the cities were closed off. Neutral German merchants could still continue business as usual.
The Office Closes
Eventually, though, the Kontor did come to an end. On the 10th of August 1630, one of the German firm owners deserted the Kontor and registered himself as a Bergen merchant. Bryggen was no longer 100% German.
By 1702, there were 19 Norwegian firms compared to 34 German firms, and in 1754 the German Kontor was disbanded and a new trading organisation was formed – the Norwegian Kontor. In 1766, the very last German firm passed into Norwegian hands.
But it wasn’t the end of the German presence in Bergen. Trade with the Northern fishermen remained, and business was still conducted in the German language. The Norwegian merchants were even offered free German classes so they could understand their accounts and attend St. Mary’s Church. While Bryggen became more Norwegian throughout the 1800s, the German presence remained until the Norwegian Kontor closed its doors in 1899. But you can still see the German presence today – the street name is Tyskebryggen (The German Wharf).
Hamburg Coat of Arms
Today, the buildings at Bryggen form the only Hanseatic Kontor remaining in Europe. Despite the fact that the Germans were often controlling, brutal, demanding, and isolated themselves, there’s no denying that the Germans provided Norwegians with access to food and good they would otherwise struggle to get. So, to counter King Sverre’s opinion that the German trade brought much evil and nothing good, it’s clear to see that the Hanseatic trade was an overall positive part of Norwegian history.
Further Reading
Read about the Hanseatic League throughout Europe on the fantastic website http://www.hanse.org.
Wikipedia has a great overview of the Hanseatic League here.
